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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2010  with  funding  from 

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http://www.archive.org/details/variationofanima1darw1893 


THE    VARIATION    OF 

ANIMALS  AND  PLANTS 

UNDER    DOMESTICATION 


BY 

CHARLES  DARWIN,    M.A.,   F.  R.S.,  Etc.   f 


IN   TWO    VOLUMES 
VOL.    I 


IVITH  ILLUSTRATIONS 

BOSTON  rOLLFGK  LTRRART 

CHEbTiNUT  HILL,  MASS. 

NEW    YORK 

D.    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY 

1897 


H 


°^  b  ^ 


Authorized  Edition, 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 


During  the  seven  years  whicli  have  elapsed  since  the  pub- 
lication in  1868  of  the  first  edition  of  this  Work,  I  have 
continued  to  attend  to  the  same  subjects,  as  far  as  lay  in  my 
power;  and  I  have  thus  accumulated  a  large  bod}*  of  addi- 
tional facts,  chiefly  through  the  kindness  of  many  corre- 
spondents. Of  these  facts  I  have  been  able  here  to  use  only 
those  which  seemed  to  me  the  more  important.  I  have 
omitted  some  statements,  and  corrected  some  errors,  the  dis- 
covery of  which  I  owe  to  my  reviewers.  Many  additional 
references  have  been  given.  The  eleventh  chapter,  and  that 
on  Pangenesis,  are  those  which  have  been  most  altered,  parts 
having  been  re-modelled ;  but  I  will  give  a  list  of  the  more 
important  alterations  for  the  sake  of  those  who  may  possess 
the  first  edition  of  this  book. 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION      Pages  1-14 

.  CHAPTER  I. 

DOMESTIC   DOGS   AND   CATS. 

ANCIENT  VARIETIES  OF  THE  DOG — EESEMBLANCE  OF  DOMESTIC  DOGS 
IN  VARIOUS  COUNTRIES  TO  NATIVE  CANINE  SPECIES — ANIMALS  NOT 
ACQUAINTED  WITH  MAN  AT  FIRST  FEARLESS — DOGS  RESEMBLING 
WOLVES     AND     JACKALS — HABIT    OF    BARKING     ACQUIRED    AND    LOST 

FERAL    DOGS TAN-COLOURED    EYE-SPOTS — PERIOD    OF     GESTATION 

OFFENSIVE    ODOUR — FERTILITY    OF    THE    RACES     WHEN    CROSSED — 

DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  SEVERAL  RACES  IN  PART  DUE  TO  DESCENT 
FROM   DISTINCT    SPECIES — DIFFERENCES    IN    THE     SKULL    AND    TEETH 

DIFFERENCES   IN   THE    BODY,    IN    CONSTITUTION FEW    IMPORTANT 

DIFFERENCES  HAVE  BEEN  FIXED  BY  SELECTION — DIRECT  ACTION 
OF  CLIMATE — WATER-DOGS  WITH  PALMATED  FEET — HISTORY  OF 
THE  CHANGES  WHICH  CERTAIN  ENGLISH  RACES  OF  THE  DOG  HAVE 
GRADUALLY  UNDERGONE  THROUGH  SELECTION — EXTINCTION  OF  THE 
LESS  IMPROVED   SUB-BREEDS. 

CATS,   CROSSED   WITH     SEVERAL    SPECIES — DIFFERENT    BREEDS   FOUND 

ONLY       IN      SEPARATED     COUNTRIES  DIRECT      EFFECTS      OF       THE 

CONDITIONS  OF  LIFE  —  FERAL  CATS  —  INDIVIDUAL  VARIABI- 
LITY           IS'-SO 

CHAPTER  II. 

HOKSES    AND   ASSES. 

HORSE. — DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  BREEDS — INDIVIDUAL  VARIABILIT? 
OF — DIRECT  EFFECTS  OF  THE  CONDITIONS  OF  LIFE — CAN  WITHSTAND 
MUCH   COLD — BREEDS    MUCH    MODIFIED    BY    SELECTION— COLOURS   OF 


71  CONTENTS. 

THE  HOKSE — DAPPLING — DARK  STRIPES  ON  THE  SPINE,  LEGS, 
SHOULDERS,  AND  FOREHEAD DUN-COLOURED  HORSE»  MOST  FRE- 
QUENTLY STRIPED — STRIPES  PROBABLY  DUE  TO  REVERSION  TO  TUB 
PRIMITIVE    STATE   OF   THE   HORSE. 

ASSES.  —  BREEDS  OF — COLOUR  OF — LEG  AND  SHOULDER-STRIPES — 
SHOULDER-STRIPES   SOMETIMES   ABSENT,    SOMETIMES   FORKED. 

Pages  51-07 
.     CHAPTER  III. 

PIGS — CATTLE — SHEEP — GOATS. 

PIGS    BELONG   TO    TWO   DISTINCT    TYPES,    SUS    SCROFA   AND   INDICUS 

TORFSCHWEIN JAPAN  PIGS — FERTILITY  OF  CROSSED  PIGS CHANGES 

IN    THE    SKULL    OF    THE    HIGHLY  CULTIVATED  RACES CONVERGENCE 

OF  CHARACTER — GESTATION — SOLID-HOOFED  SWINE — CURIOUS  AP- 
PENDAGES TO  THE  JAWS — DECREASE  IN  SIZE  OF  THE  TUSKS — 
YOUNG  PIGS  LONGITUDINALLY  STRIPED  —  FERAL  PIGS  — CROSSED 
BREEDS. 

CATTLE. — ZEBU  A  DISTINCT  SPECIES — EUROPEAN  CATTLE  PROBABLY 
DESCENDED  FROM  THREE  WILD  FORMS  —  ALL  THE  RACES  NOW 
FERTILE  TOGETHER — BRITISH  PARK  CATTLE — ON  THE  COLOUR  OF 
THE  ABORIGINAL  SPECIES — CONSTITUTIONAL  DIFFERENCES — SOUTH 
AFRICAN  RACES — SOUTH  AMERICAN  RACES — NIATA  CATTLE — ORIGIN 
OF    THE    VARIOUS    RACES    OF    CATTLE. 

SHEEP. REMARKABLE     RACES     OF — VARIATIONS    ATTACHED     TO     THE 

MALE  SEX — ADAPTATIONS  TO  VARIOUS  CONDITIONS — GESTATION  OF 
— CHANGES   IN   THE    WOOL — SEMI-MONSTROUS   BREEDS. 

GOATS.— REMARKABLE    VARIATIONS   OF  68--106 


CHAPTEE  IV. 

DOMESTIC   BABBITS. 

DOMESTIC     RABBITS     DESCENDED     FROM     THE    COMMON    WILD     RABBIT — 

ANCIENT   DOMESTICATION ANCIENT    SELECTION — LARGE    LOP-EARED 

KABBITS VARIOUS      BREEDS FLUCTUATING       CHARACTERS — ORIGIN 

OF     THE     HIMALAYAN     BREED — CURIOUS     CASE     OF     INHERITANCE — 

FERAL    RABBITS    IN   JAMAICA    AND    THE    FALKLAND    ISLANDS PORTO 

SANTO      FERAL     RABBITS  —  OSTEOLOGICAL      CHARACTERS SKLTJi- 


CONTENTS.  Vll 

SKULL     OF       HALF-LOP       RABBITS  VARIATIONS     IN       THE       SKULL 

ANALAGOUS    TO    DIFFERENCES     IN     DIFFERENT    SPECIES    OF     HARES 

VERTEBRAE — STERNUM — SCAPULA — EFFECTS   OF  USE   AND    DISUSE   ON 

THE     PROPORTIONS     OF     THE     LIMBS   AND    BODY CAPACITY    OF     THE 

SKULL     AND     REDUCED    SIZE     OF      THE     BRAIN — SUMMARY    ON     THE 
MODIFICATIONS   OF   DOMESTICATED   RABBITS   ..         ..       Pages  107-136 


CHAPTER  Y. 

DOMESTIC    PIGEONS. 

ENUMERATION   AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  SEVERAL  BREEDS — INDIVIDUAL 

VARIABILITY VARIATIONS     OF     A      REMARKABLE     NATURE — OSTEO- 

LOGICAL    CHARACTERS  :    SKULL,  LOWER    JAW,  NUMBER   OF    VERTEBRA 

CORRELATION    OF    GROWTH:     TONGUE    WITH   BEAK;     EYELIDS    AND 

NOSTRILS    WITH    WATTLED    SKIN — NUMBER    OP    WING-FEATHERS    AND 

LENGTH    OF    WING COLOUR    AND    DOWN WEBBED    AND    FEATHERED 

FEET — ON  THE  EFFECTS  OF  DISUSE — LENGTH  OF  FEET  IN  CORRE- 
LATION WITH  LENGTH  OF  BEAK — LENGTH  OF  STERNUM,  SCAPULA, 
AND  FURCULUM — LENGTH  OF  WINGS — SUMMARY  ON  THE  POINTS 
OF   DIFFERENCE   IN   THE   SEVERAL   BREEDS         137-188 


CHAPTER  YI. 

PIGEONS — continued. 


ON  THE  ABORIGINAL  PARENT-STOCK  OF  THE  SEVERAL  DOMESTIC  RACES 
HABITS  OF  LIFE — WILD  RACES  OF  THE  ROCK-PIGEON DOVECOT- 
PIGEONS — PROOFS  OF  THE  DESCENT  OF  THE  SEVERAL  RACES  FROM 
COI-UMBA  LIVIA — FERTILITY  OF  THE  RACES  WHEN  CROSSED — RE- 
VERSION TO  THE'  PLUMAGE  OF  THE  WILD  ROCK-PIGEON — CIRCUM- 
STANCES FAVOURABLE  TO  THE  FORMATION  OF  THE  RACES — AN- 
TIQUITY AND  HISTORY  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  RACES — MANNER  OF 
THEIR  FORMATION  —  SELECTION  —  UNCONSCIOUS  SELECTION  —  CARE 
TAKEN  BY  FANCIERS  IN  SELECTING  THEIR  BIRDS — SLIGHTLY  DIF- 
FERENT   STRAINS  GRADUALLY    CHANGE    INTO    WELL-MARKED    BREEDS 

EXTINCTION    OF    INTERMEDIATE  FORMS— CERTAIN   BREEDS   REMAIN 

PEBMANENT,    WHILST    OTHERS    CHANGE — SUMMARY..         ..        I89-2tS5 


nii  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTEE  Vn. 

FOWLS. 

BRIEF  DESCEIFHOlSrS  OF  THE  CHIEF  BREEDS — ARGUMENTS  IN  PAVOUB 
OF  THEIR  DESCENT  FROM  SEVERAL  SPECIES — ARGUMENTS  IN  FAVOUIl 
OF  ALL  THE  BREEDS  HAVING  DESCENDED  FROM  GALLUS  BANKIVA 
—  REVERSION  TO  THE  PARENT- STOCK  IN  COLOUR  —  ANALOGOUS 
VARIATIONS — ANCIENT  HISTORY  OF  THE  FOWL — EXTERNAL  DIF- 
FERENCES BETWEEN  THE  SEVERAL  BREEDS  —  EGGS  —  CHICKENS — 
SECONDARY  SEXUAL  CHARACTERS — WING-  AND  TAIL-  FEATHERS, 
VOICE,  DISPOSITION,  ETC. — OSTEOLOGICAL  DIFFERENCES  IN  THE 
SKULL,  VERTEBRiE,  ETC. — EFFECTS  OF  USE  AND  DISUSE  ON  CERTAIN 
PARTS — CORRELATION   OF   GROWTH  PageS  236-289 


CHAPTEK  YIII. 

DUCK — GOOSE — PEACOCK — TUKKET — GUINEA-FOWL— 
CANAEY-BIRD — GOLD-FISH — HIYE-BEES — SILK-MOTHS. 

DUCKS,  SEVERAL  BREEDS  OF — PROGRESS  OF  DOMESTICATION — ORIGIN 
OF  FROM  THE  COMMON  WILD-DUCK — DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  DIF- 
FERENT BREEDS — OSTEOLOGICAL  DIFFERENCES — EFFECTS  OF  USE 
AND   DISUSE   ON   THE   LIMB-BONES. 

GOOSE,  ANCIENTLY  DOMESTICATED — ^LITTLE  VARIATION  OF — SEBAS- 
TOPOL   BREED. 

PEACOCK,   ORIGIN   OF   BLACK-SHOULDERED  BREED. 

TURKEY,  BREEDS  OF — CROSSED  WITH  THE  UNITED  STATES  SPECIES 
— EFFECTS   OF    CLIMATE   ON. 

GUINEA-FOWL,  CANARY-BIRD,  GOLD-FISH,  HIYE-BEE. 
SILK-MOTHS,  SPECIES   and  breeds  of — anciently   domesticated 

— CARE  IN  THEIR  SELECTION — DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  DIFFERENT 
RACES — IN  THE  EGG,  CATERPILLAR,  AND  COCOON  STATES — INHERIT- 
ANCE OF  CHARACTERS — IMPERFECT  WINGS  —LOST  INSTINCTS — CORRE- 
LATED  CHARACTERS '  ..         ..         290-321 


CONTENTS.  IX 

CHAPTEE  IX. 

CULTIVATED   PLANTS  :    CEREAL   AND    CULINARY   PLANTS. 
PEELIMINAEY   REMARKS  on  the  number  and   parentage  of 

CULTIVATED  PLANTS — FIRST  STEPS  IN  CULTIVATION — GEOGRAPHICAL 
DISTRIBUTION   OF   CULTIVATED   PLANTS. 

CEREALIA.  —  DOUBTS   on   the   number   of   species. wheat: 

VARIETIES     OF  — ■  INDIVIDUAL    VARIABILITY  —  CHANGED     HABITS — 

selection — ANCIENT  HISTORY  OF  THE  VARIETIES. MAIZE  :  GREAT 

VARIATION   OF — DIRECT   ACTION   OF   CLIMATE   ON. 

CULINARY  PLANTS. — cabbages  :  varieties  of,  in  foliage  and 

STEMS,   BUT   NOT   EST  OTHER  PARTS — PARENTAGE  OF — OTHER   SPECIES 

OF   BRASSICA. PEAS  :    AMOUNT   OF    DIFFERENCE   IN   THE  SEVERAL 

KINDS,    CHIEFLY     IN     THE   PODS    AND     SEED — SOME     VARIETIES     CON- 
STANT,   SOME    HIGHLY    VARIABLE — DO    NOT   INTERCROSS. BEANS. 

POTATOES  :    NUMEROUS   VARIETIES   OF — DIFFER  LITTLE    EXCEPT 

IN    THE    TUBERS — CHARACTERS   INHERITED         ..         ..     Pao;eS  322-351 


CHAPTEE  X. 
PLANTS  continued — fruits — ornamental  trees — 

FLOWERS. 

JJ'RUITS — GRAPES — VARY    IN     ODD    AND    TRIFLING    PARTICULARS. • 

MULBERRY — THE   ORANGE   GROUP — SINGULAR  RESULTS   FROM   CROSS- 
ING.  PEACH     AND    NECTARINE  BUD-VARIATION ANALOGOUS 

VARIATION — RELATION    TO    THE  ALMOND. APRICOT. PLUMS — 

VARIATION   IN    THEIR   STONES. CHERRIES — SINGULAR    VARIETIES 

OF. APPLE. PEAR. STRAWBERRY — INTERBLENDING  OF  THE 

ORIGINAL    FORMS. GOOSEBERRY — STEADY  INCREASE    IN    SIZE    OF 

THE   FRUIT — VARIETIES     OF. WALNUT. NUT. CUCURBITA- 

CEOUS   PLANTS — WONDERFUL   VARIATION  OF. 

ORNAMENTAL  TREES — their  variation  in  degree   and  kind 

— ash-  tree — SCOTCH-FIR — HAWTHORN. 

FLOWERS — MULTIPLE   ORIGIN   OF   MANY   KINDS — VARIATION  IN    CON- 
STITUTIONAL    PECULIARITIES  —  KIND     OF     VARIATION. ROSES  — 

SEVERAL     SPECIES     CULTIVATED. PANSY. DAHLIA.  HYA- 
CINTH— HISTORY   AND   VARIATION   OF         352-396 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

ON    BUD-VARIATION,   AND    ON   CERTAIN   ANOMALOUS   MODES 
OF    EEPEODUCTION   AND   VAEIATION. 

nUD-VARIATION  IN  THE  PEACH,  PLUM,  CHERRY,  VINE,  GOOSEBERRY, 
CURRANT,  AND  BANANA,  AS  SHOWN  BY  THE  MODIFIED  FRUIT — IN 
flowers:  CAMELLIAS,  AZALEAS,  CHRYSANTHEMUMS,  ROSES,  ETC- 
—  ON  THE  RUNNING  OF  THE  COLOUR  IN  CARNATIONS BUD- 
VARIATIONS  IN  LEAVES — VARIATIONS  BY  SUCKERS,  TUBERS,  AND 
BULBS — ON  THE  BREAKING  OF  TULIPS — BUD-VARIATIONS  GRADUATE 
INTO  CHANGES  CONSEQUENT  ON  CHANGED  CONDITIONS  OF  LIFE — 
GRAFT-HYBRIDS — ON  THE  SEGREGATION  OF  THE  PARENTAL  CHARAC- 
TERS IN  SEMINAL  HYBRIDS  BY  BUD-VARIATION — ON  THE  DIRECT 
OR  IMMEDIATE  ACTION  OF  FOREIGN  POLLEN  ON  THE  MOTHER- 
PLANT — ON  THE  EFFECTS  OF  A  PREVIOUS  IMPREGNATION  ON  THE 
SUBSEQUENT    OFFSPRING    OF    FEMALE     ANIMALS — CONCLUSION     AND 

SUMMARY Pages  397-444 


CHAPTER  XII. 

INHEKITANCE. 

WONDERFUL  NATURE  OF  INHERITANCE — PEDIGREES  OF  OUR  DOMESTI- 
CATED ANIMALS — INHERITANCE  NOT  DUE  TO  CHANCE — TRIFLING 
CHARACTERS   INHERITED — DISEASES    INHERITED — PECULIARITIES    IN 

THE    EYE    INHERITED — DISEASES    IN    THE    HORSE LONGEVITY    AND 

VIGOUR ASYMMETRICAL     DEVIATIONS      OF      STRUCTURE POLYDAC- 

TYLISM  AND  REGROWTH  OF  SUPERNUMERARY  DIGITS  AFTER  AM- 
PUTATION— CASES  OF  SEVERAL  CHILDREN  SIMILARLY  AFFECTED 
FROM  NON-AFFECTED  PARENTS  —  WEAK  AND  FLUCTUATING  IN- 
HERITANCE :  IN  WEEPING  TREES,  IN  DWARFNESS,  COLOUR  OF  FRUIT 
AND  FLOWERS — COLOUR  OF  HORSES — NON-INHERITANCE  IN  CERTAIN 
CASES — INHERITANCE  OF  STRUCTURE  AND  HABITS  OVERBORNE  BY 
HOSTILE  CONDITIONS  OF  LIFE,  BY  INCESSANTLY  RECURRING  VARIA- 
BILITY, AND  BY  REVERSION— CONCLUSION        ..       ..       ..      445-'i73 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


-•♦•- 


FIG. 


1.  Dun  Devonshire  Pony,  with  shouldee,  spinal,  and  leg 


STRIPES 


lAQB 


59 


2.  Head  of  Japan  or  Masked  Pig         73 

3.  Head  of   Wild   Boar,  and  of  "  Golden  Days,"  a  pig 

OF  THE  Yorkshire  large  breed      75 

4.  Old  Irish  Pig  with  jaw- appendages        79 

5.  Half-lop  Rabbit 112 

6.  Skull  of  Wild  Piabbit        1*^2 

7.  Skull  of  large  Lop-eared  Rabbit 122 

8.  Part  of  Zygomatic  Arch,  showing  the  projecting  end 

of    the   malar   bone    of    the   auditory   meatus,   of 

Rabbits ..  123 

9.  Posterior  end   of   Skull,  showing   the  inter-parietal 

BONE,  OF  Rabbits         123 

10.  Occipital  Foramen  of  Rabbits 123 

11.  Skull  of  Half-lop  Rabbit          124 

12.  Atlas  Vertebra  of  Rabbits       126 

13.  TnniD  Cervical  Vertebra  of  Rabbits 127 

14.  Dorsal  Vertebra,  from  sixth  to  tenth  inclusive,  of 

Rabbits 128 

15.  Terminal  Bone  of  Sternum  of  Rabbits 128 

10.  Acromion  of  Scapula  of  Rabbits      129 

17.  The  Rock-Pigeon,  or  Columba  Livia        141 

18.  English  Pouter      144 

19.  English  Carrier     147 

20.  English  Barb 152 

21.  English  Fantail 154 

22.  African  Owl 157 

IS.  Short-faced  English  Tumbler   ..      .....      ..      ..      ..  160 


Xll  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PA.GS 

24.  Skulls  of  Pigeons,  viewed  laterally 172 

25.  Lower  Jaws  of  Pigeons,  seen  from  above     173 

26.  Skull  of  Eunt,  seen  from  above     174 

27.  Lateral  view  of  Jaws  of  Pigeons ..  174 

28.  Scapula  of  Pigeons      17G 

29.  FuRcuLA  of  Pigeons      170 

30.  Spanish  Fowl 238 

31.  Hamburgh  Fowl 239 

32.  Polish  Fowl 240 

33.  Occipital  Foramen  of  the  Skulls  of  Fowls        ..      ..  274 

34.  Skulls  of   Fowls,  viewed  from  above,  a  little   ob- 

liquely    275 

35.  Longitudinal   sections   of    Skulls   of   Fowls,   viewed 

laterally 277 

36.  Skull  of  Horned  Fowl,  viewed  from  above,  a  little 

obliquely      279 

37    Sixth  Cervical  Vertebra  of  Fowls,  viewed  laterally  281 

38.  Extremity  of  the  Furcula  of   Fowls,  viewed  later- 

ally         282 

39.  Skulls  of  Ducks,  viewed  laterally,  reduced  to  two- 

thirds  OF   THE   natural   SIZE 297 

40.  Cervical  Vertebra  of  Ducks,  op  natural  size  ..   ,.  298 

41.  Pods  of  the  Common  Pea 347 

42.  Peach  and  Almond  Stones,  of  natural  size,  viewed 

edgeways   358 

4:3.  Plum  Stones,  of  natubal  size,  viewed  laterally   ..  360 


(     ^iii     ) 


TABLE   OF   PRINCIPAL  ADDITIONS  AND 
CORRECTIONS. 


First 

Second 

Edition. 

Edition. 

Vol.  1. 

Vol.  J. 

Page 

Page 

34: 

35 

Dr.  Burt  Wilder's  observations  on  the  brains  ol 
different  breeds  of  the  Dog. 

38 

40 

Degeneracy  of  Dogs  imported  into  Guinea. 

51 

54 

Difference  in  the  number  of  the  lumbar  vertebrae  in 
the  races  or  species  of  the  Horse. 

102 

106 

Hairy  ajapendages  to  the  throats  of  Goats. 

16-2 

170 

Sexual  differences  in  colour  in  the  domestic  Pigeon. 

217 

228 

Movements  like  those  of  the  Tumbler-pigeon, 
caused  by  injury  to  the  brain. 

290 

306 

Additional  facts  with  respect  to  the  Black-shouldered 
Peacock. 

296 

312 

Ancient  selection  of  Gold-fish  in  China. 

314 

332 

Major  Hallett's  '  Pedigree  Wheat.' 

326 

345 

The  common  radish  descended  from  Baphanus  raph- 
anistrum. 

374 

398 

Several  additional  cases  of  bud- variation  given. 

396 

420 

An  abstract  of  all  the  cases  recently  published  of 
graft-hybrids  in  the  potato,  together  with  a  gene- 
ral summary  on  graft-hybridisation. 

399 

429 

An  erroneous  statement  with  respect  to  the  pollen 
of  the  date-palm  affecting  the  fruit  of  the  Cham- 
serops  omitted. 

400 

430 

New  cases  of  the  direct  action  of  pollen  on  the 
mother-plant. 

404 

435 

Additional  and  remarkable  instances  of  the  action 
of  the  male  parent  on  the  future  progeny  of  the 

70L.  11. 

female. 

14 

459 

An  erroneous  statement  corrected,  with  respect  to 
the  regrowth  of  supernumerary  digits  after  am- 
putation. 

(     xiv     ) 


TABLE  OF  PRINCIPAL  ADDITIONS  AND  CORRECTIONS. 

(  Continued.') 


First 
Edition. 
Vol.  II. 


Page 

28 


23 
24 

43 

72 
105 
120 

123 

135 

to 

141 

149 

152 
230 
273 

281 


317 

309 

324 

316 

to 

to 

328 

327 

339 

383 

357 

349 

to 

to 

404 

399 

Second 
Edition 
Vol.  I. 


Page 

467 


467 


134 
215 

262 

271 


Additional  facts  with  respect  to  the  inherited  effects 
of  circiimcision. 

Dr.  Brown-Seqnard  on  the  inherited  effects  of  opera- 
tions on  the  Guinea-pig. 

Other  cases  of  inherited  mutilations. 

An  additional  case  of  reversion  due  to  a  cross. 

Inheritance  as  limited  by  sex. 

Two  varieties  of  maize  which  cannot  be  crossed. 

Some  additional  facts  on  the  advantages  of  cross- 
breeding in  animals. 

Discussion  on  the  effects  of  close  interbreeding  in 
the  case  of  man. 

Additional  cases  of  plants  sterile  with  pollen  from 
the  same  plant. 

Mr.  Sclater  on  the  infertility  of  animals  under  con- 
finement. 

The  Aperea  a  distinct  species  from  the  Guinea-pig. 

Prof.  Jager  on  hawks  killing  light-coloured  pigeons. 

Prof.  Weismann  on  the  effects  of  isolation  in  the 
development  of  species. 

The  direct  action  of  the  conditions  of  life  in  causing 
variation. 

Mr.  Romanes  on  rudimentary  parts. 

Some  additional  cases  of  correlated  variability. 

On  Geoffroy  St.  Hilaire's  law  of  "  so i  pour  soi." 
The  chapter  on  Pangenesis  has  been  largely  altered 
and  re-modelled;  but  the  essential  principles  re- 
main the  same. 


THE 

VAEIATION  OF  ANIMALS  AND  PLANTS 

UNDER    DOMESTICATION. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The  oloject  of  this  work  is  not  to  describe  all  the  many  races 
of  animals  which  have  been  domesticated  by  man,  and  of 
the  j)lants  which  have  been  cultivated  by  him ;  even  if  I 
possessed  the  requisite  knowledge,  so  gigantic  an  undertaking 
would  be  here  superfluous.  It  is  my  intention  to  give  under  the 
head  of  each  species  only  such  facts  as  I  have  been  able  to  col- 
lect or  observe,  showing  the  amount  and  nature  of  the  changes 
which  animals  and  plants  have  undergone  whilst  under  man's 
dominion,  or  which  bear  on  the  general  principles  of  varia- 
tion. In  one  case  alone,  namely  in  that  of  the  domestic 
pigeon,  I  will  describe  fully  all  the  chief  races,  their  history-, 
the  amount  and  nature  of  their  differences,  and  the  probable 
steps  by  which  they  have  been  formed.  I  have  selected  this 
case,  because,  as  we  shall  hereafter  see,  the  materials  are  better 
than  in  any  other ;  and  one  case  fully  described  will  in  fact 
illustrate  all  others.  But  I  shall  also  describe  domesticated 
rabbits,  fowls,  and  ducks,  with  considerable  fulness. 

The  subjects  discussed  in  this  volume  are  so  connected  that 
it  is  not  a  little  difficult  to  decide  how  they  can  be  best  arranged. 
I  have  determined  in  the  first  part  to  give,  under  the  heads  of 
the  various  animals  and  plants,  a  large  body  of  facts,  some 
of  which  may  at  first  appear  but  little  related  to  our  subject, 
and  to  devote  the  latter  part  to  general  discussions.  When- 
ever I  have  found  it  necessary  to  give  numerous  details,  in 
support  of  any  proposition  or  conclusion,  small  type  has  been 
2 


2  INTRODUCTION. 

used.  The  readei  will,  I  think,  find  this  plan  a  convenience^ 
for,  if  he  does  not  doubt  the  conclusion  or  care  about  the 
details,  he  can  easily  pass  them  over  ;  yet  I  may  be  permitted 
to  say  that  some  of  the  discussions  thus  printed  deserve 
attention,  at  least  from  the  professed  naturalist. 

It  may  be  useful  to  those  who  have  read  nothing  about 
Katural  Selection,  if  I  here  give  a  brief  sketch  of  the  whole 
subject  and  of  its  bearing  on  the  origin  of  species.^  This  is 
the  more  desirable,  as  it  is  impossible  in  the  present  work  to 
avoid  many  allusions  to  questions  which  will  be  fully  discussed 
in  future  volumes. 

From  a  remote  period,  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  man  has 
subjected  many  animals  and  plants  to  domestication  or  culture. 
Man  has  no  power  of  altering  the  absolute  conditions  of  life  : 
he  cannot  change  the  climate  of  any  country ;  he  adds  no  new 
element  to  the  soil ;  but  he  can  remove  an  animal  or  plant 
from  one  climate  or  soil  to  another,  and  give  it  food  on  which  . 
it  did  not  subsist  in  its  natui-al  state.  It  is  an  error  to  speak 
of  man  "  tampering  with  nature  "  and  causing  variability.  If 
a  man  drops  a  piece  of  iron  into  sulphuric  acid,  it  cannot  be 
said  strictly  that  he  makes  the  sulphate  of  iron,  he  only 
allows  their  elective  affinities  to  come  into  play.  If  organic 
beings  had  not  possessed  an  inherent  tendency  to  vary,  man 
could  have  done  nothing.^  He  unintentionally  exposes  his 
animals  and  plants  to  various  conditions  of  life,  and  varia- 
bility supervenes,  which  he  cannot  even  prevent  or  check. 
Consider  the  simple  case  of  a  plant  which  has  been  cultivated 
during  a  long  time  in  its  native  country,  and  which  conse- 
quently has  not  been  subjected  to  any  change  of  climate.  It 
has  been  protected  to  a  certain  extent  from  the  competing 
roots  of  plants  of  other  kinds ;  it  has  generally  been  grown  iu 
manured  soil ;  but  probably  not  richer  than  that  of  many  an 

1  To  any  one  who  has  attentively  tinned  ill-health, 

read  my  '  Origin  of  Species '  this  In-  2  M.  Pouehet  has  recently  ('  Plural- 

troduction  will  be  superfluous.    As  I  ity  of  Kaces,'  Eng.  Translat.,  1864,  p. 

stated  in  that  work  that  I  should  83,  &c.)  insisted  that  variation  under 

soon  publish  the  facts  on  which  the  domestication  throws  no  light  on  the 

conclusions  given  in  it  were  founded,  natural  modification  of  species.     I 

I  here  beg  permission  to  remark  that  cannot  perceive  the  force  of  his  argu- 

the  great  delay  in  publishing  this  ments,  or,  to  speak  more  accurately, 

first  work  has  been  caused  by  con-  of  his  assertions  to  this  effect. 


NATUKAL   SELECTIONc  O 

* 
alluvial  flat;  and  lastly, it  has  been  exposed  to  changes  in  its 
conditions,  being  grown  sometimes  in  one  district  and  some- 
times in  another,  in  different  soils.  Under  such  circumstances, 
scarcely  a  plant  can  be  named,  though  cultivated  in  the  rudest 
manner,  which  has  not  given  birth  to  several  varieties.  It  can 
Iiardly  be  maintained  that  during  the  many  changes  which  this 
earth  has  undergone,  and  during  the  natural  migrations  of 
plants  from  one  land  or  island  to  another,  tenanted  by  different 
species,  that  such  plants  will  not  often  have  been  subjected  to 
changes  in  their  conditions  analogous  to  those  which  almost 
inevitably  cause  cultivated  plants  to  vary.  No  doubt  man 
selects  varying  individuals,  sows  their  seeds,  and  again  selects, 
their  varying  offspring.  But  the  initial  variation  on  which 
man  works,  and  without  which  he  can  do  nothing,  is  caused 
by  slight  changes  in  the  conditions  of  life,  which  must  often 
have  occurred  under  nature.  Man,  therefore,  may  be  said  to 
have  been  trying  an  experiment  on  a  gigantic  scale ;  and  it 
is  an  experiment  which  nature  during  the  long  lapse  of  time 
has  incessantly  tried.  Hence  it  follows  that  the  principles 
of  domestication  are  important  for  us.  The  main  result 
is  that  organic  beings  thus  treated  have  varied  largely, 
and  the  variations  have  been  inherited.  This  has  ap- 
parently been  one  chief  cause  of  the  belief  long  held  by  some 
few  naturalists  that  species  in  a  state  of  nature  undergo 
change. 

I  shall  in  this  volume  treat,  as  fully  as  my  materials  permit, 
the  whole  subject  of  variation  under  domestication.  We  may 
thus  hope  to  obtain  some  light,  little  though  it  be,  on  the 
causes  of  variability, — on  the  laws  which  govern  it,  such  as  the 
direct  action  of  climate  and  food,  the  effects  of  use  and  disuse, 
and  of  correlation  of  growth, — and  on  the  amount  of  change  to 
which  domesticated  organisms  are  liable.  We  shall  learn 
something  of  the  laws  of  inheritance,  of  the  effects  of  crossing 
different  breeds,  and  on  that  sterility  which  often  supervenes 
when  organic  beings  are  removed  from  their  natural 
conditions  of  life,  and  likewise  when  they  are  too  closely 
interbred.  During  this  investigation  we  shall  see  that  the 
principle  of  Selection  is  highly  important.  Although  man  does 
not  cause  variability  and  cannot  even  prevent  it,  he  can  select. 


t  INTKODUCTION. 

preserve,  and  accumulate  tlie  variations  given  to  him  by  the 
hand  of  nature  almost  in  any  way  which  he  chooses ;  and 
thus  he  can  certainly  produce  a  great  result.  Selection  may 
be  followed  either  methodically  and  intentionally,  or  uncon- 
sciously and  unintentionally.  Man  may  select  and  preserve 
each  successive  variation,  with  the  distinct  intention  of  im- 
proving and  altering  a  breed,  in  accordance  with  a  precon- 
oeived  idea;  and  by  thus  adding  up  variations,  often  so 
slight  as  to  be  imperceptible  by  an  uneducated  eje,  he  has 
effected  wonderful  changes  and  improvements.  It  can,  also, 
be  clearly  shown  that  man,  without  any  intention  or  thought 
of  improving  the  breed,  by  preserving  in  each  successive 
generation  the  individuals  which  he  prizes  most,  and  by 
destroying  the  worthless  individuals,  slowl}^,  though  surely, 
induces  great  changes.  As  the  will  of  man  thus  comes 
into  play,  we  can  understand  how  it  is  that  domesticated 
breeds  show  adaptation  to  his  wants  and  pleasures.  We 
can  further  understand  how  it  is  that  domestic  races  of 
animals  and  cultivated  races  of  plants  often  exhibit  an 
abnormal  character,  as  compared  with  natural  species;  for 
they  have  been  modified  not  for  their  own  benefit,  but  foi 
that  of  man. 

In  another  work  I  shall  discuss,  if  time  and  health  permit, 
the  variabilit}^  of  organic  beings  in  a  state  of  nature  ;  namely, 
the  individual  diiferences  presented  by  animals  and  plants, 
and  those  slightly  greater  and  generally  inherited  differences 
which  are  ranked  by  naturalists  as  varieties  or  geographical 
races.  We  shall  see  how  difficult,  or  rather  how  impossible 
it  often  is,  to  distinguish  between  races  and  sub-species,  as 
the  less  well-marked  forms  have  sometimes  been  denominated ; 
and  again  between  sub-species  and  true  species.  I  shall 
further  attempt  to  show  that  it  is  the  common  and  widely 
ranging,  or,  as  they  may  be  called,  the  dominant  species, 
which  most  frequently  vary ;  and  that  it  is  the  large  and 
flourishing  genera  which  include  the  greatest  number ,  of 
varying  species.  Varieties,  as  we  shall  see,  may  justly  be 
called  incipient  species. 

But  it  may  be  urged,  granting  that  organic  beings  in  a  state 
of  nature  present  seme  varieties, — that  their  organization  is 


NATUEAL    SELECTION.  O 

in  some  slight  degree  plastic ;  granting  tliat  many  animals 
itnd  plants  liave  varied  greatly  under  domestication,  and  that 
man  by  his  power  of  selection  has  gone  on  accumulating  such 
variations  until  he  has  made  strongly  marked  and  firmly  in- 
herited races;  granting  all  this,  how,  it  may  be  asked,  have 
species  arisen  in  a  state  of  nature  ?  The  diiferences  between 
natural  varieties  are  slight ;  whereas  the  differences  are  con- 
siderable between  the  species  of  the  same  genus,  and  great 
between  the  species  of  distinct  genera.  How  do  these  lesser 
differences  become  augmented  into  the  greater  difference  ? 
How  do  varieties,  or  as  1  have  called  them  incipient  species, 
become  converted  into  true  and  well-defined  species  ?  How  has 
each  new  species  been  adapted  to  the  surrounding  physical  con- 
ditions, and  to  the  other  forms  of  life  on  which  it  in  any  way 
depends  ?  We  see  on  every  side  of  us  innumerable  adapta- 
tions and  contrivances,  which  have  justly  excited  the  highest 
admiration  of  every  observer.  There  is,  for  instance,  a  fly 
(Cecidomjda)  ^  which  deposits  its  eggs  within  the  stamens 
of  a  Scrophularia,  and  secretes  a  poison  which  produces  a  gall, 
on  which  the  larva  feeds ;  but  there  is  another  insect  (Miso- 
canipus)  which  deposits  its  eggs  within  the  body  of  the  larva 
within  the  gall,  and  is  thus  nourished  by  its  living  prey  ;  so 
that  here  a  hymenopterous  insect  depends  on  a  dipterous 
inhcct,  and  this  depends  on  its  power  of  producing  a  monstrous 
growth  iu  a  particular  organ  of  a  particular  plant.  So  it  is,  in 
a  more  or  less  plainly  marked  manner,  in  thousands  and  tens 
of  thousands  of  cases,  with  the  lowest  as  well  as  with  the  highest 
pro'l  notions  of  nature. 

This  problem  of  the  conversion  of  varieties  into  species, — 
that  is,  the  augmentation  of  the  slight  differences  character- 
istic of  varieties  into  the  greater  differences  characteristic  of 
species  and  genera,  including  the  admirable  adaptations  of 
each  being  to  its  complex  organic  and  inorganic  conditions  of 
life, — has  been  briefly  treated  in  my  '  Origin  of  Species.'  It 
was  there  shown  that  all  organic  beings,  without  exception, 
tend  to  increase  at  so  high  a  ratio,  that  no  district,  no  station, 
not  even  the  whole  surface  of  the  land  or  the  whole  ocean, 

"  Leon  Dufour  in  '  Annales  des  Scienc.  Nat.'(3vd  series,  Zoolog.),  torn.  v.  p.  6. 


O  INTRODUCTION. 

would  hold  tlie  progeny  of  a  single  pair  after  a  certain  numlDei 
of  generations.  The  inevitable  result  is  an  ever -recurrent 
Struggle  for  Existence.  It  has  truly  been  said  that  all 
nature  is  at  M^ar ;  the  strongest  ultimately  prevail,  the 
weakest  fail ;  and  we  well  know  that  myriads  of  forms  have 
disappeared  from  the  face  of  the  earth.  If  then  organic  beings 
in  a  state  of  nature  vary  even  in  a  slight  degree,  owing  to 
changes  in  the  surrounding  conditions,  of  which  we  have 
abundant  geological  evidence,  or  from  any  other  cause;  if, 
in  the  long  course  of  ages,  inheritable  variations  ever  arise 
in  any  way  advantageous  to  any  being  under  its  excessively 
complex  and  changing  relations  of  life ;  and  it  would  be  a 
strange  fact  if  beneficial  variations  did  never  arise,  seeing 
how  many  have  arisen  which  man  has  taken  advantage  of  for 
his  own  profit  or  pleasure ;  if  then  these  contingencies  ever 
occur,  and  I  do  not  see  how  the  probability  of  their  occur- 
rence can  be  doubted,  then  the  severe  and  often-recurrent 
struggle  for  existence  will  determine  that  those  variations, 
however  slight,  which  are  favourable  shall  be  preserved 
or  selected,  and  those  w^hich  are  unfavourable  shall  be 
destroyed. 

This  preservation,  during  the  battle  for  life,  of  varieties 
which  possess  any  advantage  in  structure,  constitution,  or 
instinct,  I  have  called  Natural  Selection ;  and  Mr.  Plerbert 
Spencer  has  well  expressed  the  same  idea  by  the  Survival  of 
the  Fittest.  The  term  "  natural  selection  "  is  in  some  respects 
a  bad  one,  as  it  seems  to  imply  conscious  choice ;  but  this 
will  be  disregarded  after  a  little  familiarity.  No  one  objects 
to  chemists  speaking  of  "  elective  affinity;  "  and  certainly  an 
acid  has  no  more  choice  in  combining  with  a  base,  than  the 
conditions  of  life  have  in  determining  whether  or  not  a  new 
form  be  selected  or  preserved.  The  term  is  so  far  a  good 
one  as  it  brings  into  connection  the  production  of  domestic 
races  by  man's  power  of  selection,  and  the  natural  preserva- 
tion of  varieties  and  species  in  a  state  of  nature.  For  brevity 
sake  I  sometimes  speak  of  natural  selection  as  an  intelligent 
power; — in  the  same  way  as  astronomers  speak  of  the  attrac- 
tion of  gravity  as  ruling  the  movements  of  the  planets,  or 
as  agriculturists  speak  of  man  making  domestic  races  by  his 


NATURAL   SELECTION.  7 

power  of  selection.  In  the  one  case,  as  in  the  other,  selection 
does  nothing  without  variability,  and  this  depends  in  some 
manner  on  the  action  of  the  surrounding  circumstances  on  the 
organism.  I  have,  also,  often  personified  the  word  Nature ; 
for  I  have  found  it  difficult  to  avoid  this  ambiguity ;  but 
I  mean  by  nature  only  the  aggregate  action  and  product 
of-many  natural  laws, — and  by  laws  only  the  ascertained 
sequence  of  events. 

It  has  been  shown  from  many  facts  that  the  largest  amount 
of  life  can  be  supported  on  each  area,  by  great  diversification 
or  divergence  in  the  structure  and  constitution  of  its  inhabi- 
tants. We  have,  aliso,  seen  that  the  continued  production  of 
new  forms  through  natural  selection,  which  implies  that  each 
new  variety  has  some  advantage  over  others,  inevitably 
leads  to  the  extermination  of  the  older  and  less  improved 
forms.  These  latter  are  almost  necessaril}"  intermediate  in 
structure,  as  well  as  in  descent,  between  the  last-produced 
forms  and  their  original  parent-species.  Kow,  if  we  suppose 
a  species  to  produce  two  or  more  varieties,  and  these  in 
the  course  of  time  to  produce  other  varieties,  the  principal 
of  good  being  derived  from  diversification  of  structure  will 
generally  lead  to  the  preservation  of  the  most  divergent 
varieties  ;  thus  the  lesser  differences  characteristic  of  varieties 
come  to  be  augmented  into  the  greater  differences  character- 
istic of  species,  and,  by  the  extermination  of  the  older  inter- 
mediate forms,  new  species  end  by  being  distinctly  defined 
objects.  ^Thus,  also,  we  shall  see  how  it  is  that  organic 
beings  can  be  classed  by  what  is  called  a  natural  method 
in  distinct  groups — species  under  genera,  and  genera  under 
families. 

As  all  the  inhabitants  of  each  country  may  be  said,  owing 
to  their  high  rate  of  reproduction,  to  be  striving  to  increase 
in  numbers ;  as  each  form  comes  into  competition  with  many 
other  forms  in  the  struggle  for  life, — for  destroy  any  one 
and  its  place  will  be  seized  by  others ;  as  every  part  of  the 
organization  occasionally  varies  in  some  slight  degree,  and 
as  natural  selection  acts  exclusiA^ely  by  the  preservation  of 
variations  Avhich  are  advantageous  under  the  excessively 
complex  conditions   to  which  each  beii.g  is  exposed,  no  limit 


8  INTEODUCTION. 

exists  to  tho  number,  singularity,  and  perfection  of  the 
contrivances  and  co-adaptations  which  ma,y  thus  be  pro- 
duced. An  animal  or  a  plant  may  thus  slowly  become 
related  in  its  structure  and  habits  in  the  most  intricate 
manner  to  many  other  animals  and  plants,  and  to  the 
physical  conditions  of  its  home.  Variations  in  the  organiza- 
tion will  in  some  cases  be  aided  by  habit,  or  by  the  use  and 
disuse  of  parts,  and  they  will  be  governed  by  the  direct 
action  of  the  surrounding  physical  conditions  and  by 
correlation  of  growth. 

On  the  principles  here  briefly  sketched  out,  there  is  no 
innate  or  necessary  tendency  in  each  being  to  its  own  ad- 
vancement in  the  scale  of  organization.  We  are  almost 
compelled  to  look  at  the  specialization  or  differentiation  of 
parts  or  organs  for  different  functions  as  the  best  or  even  sole 
standard  of  advancement ;  for  by  such  division  of  labour  each 
function  of  body  and  mind  is  better  performed.  And  as 
natural  selection  acts  exclusively  through  the  preservation  of 
profitable  medications  of  structure,  and  as  the  conditions  of 
life  in  each  area  generally  become  more  and  more  complex 
from  the  increasing  number  of  different  forms  which  inhabit 
it  and  from  most  of  these  forms  acquiring  a  more  and  more 
perfect  structure,  we  may  confidently  believe,  that,  on  the 
whole,  organization  advances.  Nevertheless  a  very  simple 
form  fitted  for  very  simple  conditions  of  life  might  remain 
for  indefinite  ages  unaltered  or  unimproved  ;  for  what  would 
it  profit  an  infusorial  animalcule,  for  instance,  or  an  intestinal 
worm,  to  become  highly  organized  ?  Members  of  a  high  group 
might  even  become,  and  this  apparently  has  often  occurred, 
fitted  for  simpler  conditions  of  life  ;  and  in  this  case  natural 
selection  would  tend  to  simplify  or  degrade  the  organization, 
for  complicated  mechanism  for  simple  actions  would  be  useless 
or  even  disadvantageous. 

The  arguments  opposed  to  the  theory  of  Natural  SelectioE, 
have  been  discussed  in  my  '  Origin  of  Species,'  as  far  as  the 
Bize  of  that  work  permitted,  under  the  following  heads : 
the  difficulty  in  understanding  how  very  simple  organs  have 
been  converted  by  small  and  graduated  steps  into  highly 
perfect    and    complex    organs ;     the     marvellous    facts     of 


NATUEAL   SELECTION.  9 

Instinct ;  the  whole  question  of  Hybridity  ;  and,  lastly,  the 
absence  in  our  known  geological  formations  of  innumerable 
links  connecting  all  allied  species.  Although  some  of  these 
difficulties  are  of  great  weight,  we  shall  see  that  many  of 
them  are  explicable  on  the  theory  of  natural  selection,  and  are 
otherwise  inexplicable. 

In  scientific  investigations  it  is  permitted  to  invent  any 
hypothesis,  and  if  it  explains  various  large  and  independent 
classes  of  facts  it  rises  to  the  rank  of  a  well-grounded  theory. 
The  undulations  of  the  ether  and  even  its  existence  are  hypo- 
thetical, yet  every  one  now  admits  the  undulatory  theory  of 
light.  The  principle  of  natural  selection  may  be  looked  at  as 
a  mere  hypothesis,  but  rendered  in  some  degree  probable  by 
what  we  positively  know  of  the  variability  of  organic  beings 
in  a  state  of  nature, — by  what  we  positively  know  of  the 
struggle  for  existence,  and  the  consequent  almost  inevitable 
preservation  of  favourable  variations,^ and  from  the  analogical 
formation  of  domestic  races.  Now  this  hypothesis  may  be 
tested, — and  this  seems  to  me  the  only  fair  and  legitimate 
manner  of  considering  the  whole  question, — by  trying 
whether  it  explains  several  large  and  independent  classes  of 
facts;  such  as  the  geological  succession  of  organic  beings, 
their  distribution  in  past  and  present  times,  and  their  mutual 
affinities  and  homologies.  If  the  principle  of  natural  selection 
does  explain  these  and  other  large  bodies  of  facts,  it  ought  to 
be  received.  On  the  ordinary  view  of  each  species  having 
been  independently  created,  we  gain  no  scientific  explanation 
of  any  one  of  these  facts.  We  can  only  say  that  it  has  so 
pleased  the  Creator  to  command  that  the  past  and  present 
inhabitants  of  the  world  should  appear  in  a  certain  order  and 
in  certain  areas;  that  He  has  impressed  on  them  the  most 
extraordinary  resemblances,  and  has  classed  them  in  groups 
subordinate  to  groups.  But  by  such  statements  we  gain  no 
new  knowledge  ;  we  do  not  connect  together  facts  and  laws  ; 
we  explain  nothing. 

It  was  the  consideration  of  such  large  groups  of  facts 
as  these  which  first  led  me  to  take  up  the  present  subject. 
When  I  visited  during  the  voyage  of  H.M.S.  Beagle,  the 
Galapagos  Arcliipelago,  situated  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  about 


1 0  INTRODUCTION. 

500  miles  from  South  America,  I  found  myself  surrounded 
by  peculiar  species  of  birds,   reptiles,   and  plants,   existing 
nowhere   else   in  the  world.     Yet   they  nearly  all  bore  an 
American  stamp.     In  the  song  of  the  mocking-thrush,  in  the 
harsh  cry  of  the  carrion-hawk,  in  the  great  candlestick-like 
opuntias,  I  clearly  perceived  the  neighbourhood  of  America, 
though  the  islands  were  separated  by  so  many  miles  of  ocean 
from  the  mainland,  and   differed  much  in   their  geological 
constitution  and  climate.     Still  more  surprising  was  the  fact 
that  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  each  separate  island  in  this 
small    archipelago  were   specifically  different,  though   most 
closely   related   to   each   other.     The   archipelago,    with   its 
innumerable  craters  and  bare  streams  of  lava,  appeared  to 
be  of  recent  origin ;  and  thus  I  fancied  myself  brought  near 
to  the  very  act  of  creation.     I  often  asked  myself  how  these 
many  peculiar  animals  and  plants  had  been  produced :  the 
simplest   answer   seemed   to   be  that  the  inhabitants  of  the 
several  islands  had   descended  from  each  other,  undergoing 
modification  in  the  course  of  their  descent ;  and  that  all  the 
inhabitants  of  the  archipelago  were  descended  from  those  of 
the  nearest   land,  namely  America,  whence  colonists  would 
naturally  have  been  derived.     But  it  long  remained  to  me  an 
inexplicable  problem  how  the  necessary  degree  of  modification 
could  have  been  effected,  and  it  would  have  thus  remained 
for  ever,  had  I  not  studied  domestic  productions,  and  thus 
acquired  a  just  idea  of  the  power  of  Selection.     As  soon  as  1 
had  fully  realized  this  idea,  I  saw,  on  reading  Malthus  on 
Population,  that  Natural  Selection  was  the  inevitable  result 
of  the  rapid  increase  of  all  organic  beings  ;  for  I  was  prepared 
to   appreciate   the   struggle   for   existence   by   having   long 
studied  the  habits  of  animals. 

Before  visiting  the  Galapagos  I  had  collected  many  animals 
whilst  travelling  from  north  to  south  on  both  sides  of  America, 
and  everywhere,  under  conditions  of  life  as  different  as  it  is 
possible  to  conceive.  American  forms  were  met  with — species 
replacing  species  of  the  same  peculiar  genera.  Thus  it  was 
when  the  Cordilleras  were  ascended,  or  tlie  thick  tropical 
forests  penetrated,  or  the  fresh  waters  of  America  searched. 
Subsequently  I  visited  other  countries,  which  in  all  then 


NATUKAL   SELECTION.  11 

conditions  of  life  were  incomparably  more  like  parts  of  South 
America,  than  the  different  parts  of  that  continent  are  to 
each  other ;  yet  in  these  countries,  as  in  Australia  or  Southern 
Africa,  the  traveller  cannot  fail  to  be  struck  with  the  entire 
difference  of  their  productions.  Again  the  reflection  was 
forced  on  me  that  community  of  descent  from  the  early 
inhabitants  of  South  America  would  alone  explain  the  wide 
prevalence  of  American  types  throughout  that  immense 
area. 

To  exhume  with  one's  own  hands  the  bones  of  extinct  and 
gigantic  quadrupeds  brings  the  whole  question  of  the 
succession  of  species  vividly  before  one's  mind  :  and  I  found 
in  South  America  great  pieces  of  tesselated  armour  exactly 
like,  but  on  a  magnificent  scale,  that  covering  the  pigmy 
armadillo ;  I  had  found  great  teeth  like  those  of  the  living 
sloth,  and  bones  like  those  of  the  cavy.  An  analogous  succes- 
sion of  allied  forms  had  been  previously  observed  in  Australia. 
Here  then  we  see  the  prevalence,  as  if  by  descent,  in  time  as 
in  space,  of  the  same  types  in  the  same  areas  ;  and  in  neither 
case  does  the  similarity  of  the  conditions  by  any  means  seem 
sufficient  to  account  for  the  similarity  of  the  forms  of  life. 
It  is  notorious  that  the  fossil  remains  of  closel}^  consecutive 
formations  are  closely  allied  in  structure,  and  we  can  at  once 
understand  the  iact  if  they  are  closely  allied  by  descent. 
The  succession  of  the  many  distinct  species  of  the  same 
genus  throughout  the  long  series  of  geological  formations 
seems  to  have  been  unbroken  or  continuous.  New  species 
come  in  gradually  one  by  one.  Ancient  and  extinct  forms  of 
life  are  often  intermediate  in  character,  like  the  words  of  a 
dead  language  with  respect  to  its  several  offshoots  or  living 
tongues.  All  these  facts  seemed  to  me  to  ]ioint  to  descent 
with  modification  as  the  means  of  pi  eduction  of  new 
spec'es. 

The  innumerable  past  and  present  inhabitants  of  the 
world  are  connected  together  by  the  most  singular  and 
complex  affinities,  and  can  be  classed  in  groups  under  groups, 
in  the  same  manner  as  varieties  can  be  classed  under  species 
and  sub-varieties  under  varieties,  but  with  much  higher 
grades  of  difference.     These  complex  affinities  and  the  rules 


12  INTKODUCTION. 

for  classification,  receive  a  rational  explanation  on  the  theor^^ 
of  descent,  combined  with  the  principle  of  natural  selection, 
which  entails  divergen  ;e  of  character  and  the  extinction  of 
intermediate  forms.  How  inexplicable  is  the  similar  pattern 
of  the  hand  of  a  man,  the  foot  of  a  dog,  the  wing  of  a  bat, 
the  flipper  of  a  seal,  on  the  doctrine  of  independent  acts  of 
creation !  how  simply  explained  on  the  principle  of  the 
natural  selection  of  successive  slight  variations  in  the 
diverging  descendants  from  a  single  progenitor  !  So  it  is 
with  certain  parts  or  organs  in  the  same  individual  animal 
or  plant,  for  instance,  the  jaws  and  legs  of  a  crab,  or  the 
petals,  stamens,  and  pistils  of  a  flower.  During  the  many 
changes  to  which  in  the  course  of  time  organic  beings  have 
been  subjected,  certain  organs  or  parts  have  occasionally 
become  at  first  of  little  use  and  ultimately  superfluous;  and 
the  retention  of  such  parts  in  a  rudimentary  and  useless 
condition  is  intelligible  on  the  theory  of  descent.  It  can  be 
shown  that  modifications  of  structure  are  generally  inherited 
by  the  offspring  at  the  same  age  at  which  each  successive 
variation  appeared  in  the  parents  ;  it  can  further  be  shown 
that  variations  do  not  commonly  supervene  at  a  very  early 
period  of  embryonic  growth,  and  on  these  two  principles  we 
can  understand  that  most  wonderful  fact  in  the  whole  circuit 
of  natural  history,  namely,  the  close  similarity  of  the  embryos 
within  the  same  great  class — for  instance,  those  of  mammals, 
birds,  reptiles,  and  fish. 

It  is  the  consideration  and  explanation  of  such  facts  as 
these  which  has  convinced  me  that  the  theory  of  descent 
with  modification  by  mean  of  natural  selection  is  in  the 
main  true.  These  facts  have  as  yet  received  no  explanation 
on  the  theory  of  independent  Creation ;  they  cannot  be 
grouped  togetlier  under  one  point  of  view,  but  each  has  to  be 
considered  as  an  ultimate  fact.  As  the  first  origin  of  life  on 
this  earth,  as  well  as  the  continued  life  of  each  individual,  is 
at  present  quite  beyond  the  scope  of  science,  I  do  not  wish  to 
lay  mucb  stress  on  the  greater  simplicity  of  the  view  of  a  few 
forms  or  of  only  one  form  having  been  originally  created, 
instead  of  innumerable  miraculous  creations  having  been 
Qecessary  at  innumerable  periods ;  though  this  more  oimplo 


NATUEAL   SELECTION.  13 

view  accords  well  with  Manpertuis's  philosophical  axiom  of 
"  legist  action." 

lu  considering  how  far  the  theory  of  natural  selcctit>ii 
may  be  extended, — that  is,  in  determining  from  how  many 
progenitors  the  inhabitants  of  the  world  have  descended, — 
we  may  conclude  that  at  least  all  the  members  of  the  same 
class  have  descended  from  a  single  ancestor.  A  ninnber  of 
organic  beings  are  included  in  the  same  class,  because  they 
present,  independently  of  their  habits  of  life,  the  same  funda- 
mental type  of  structure,  and  because  they  graduate  into  each 
other.  "Moreover,  members  of  the  same  class  can  in  most 
cases  be  shown  to  be  closely  alike  at  an  early  embryonic  age. 
These  facts  can  be  explained  on  the  belief  of  their  descent  from 
a  common  form  ;  therefore  it  may  be  safely  admitted  that  all 
the  members  of  the  same  cla^ss  are  descended  from  one  pro- 
genitor. But  afe  the  members  of  quite  distinct  clas-es  have 
somethinuj  in  common  in  structure  and  much  in  common  in 
constitution,  analogy  would  lead  us  one  step  further,  and  to 
infer  as  probable  that  all  living  creatures  are  descended  from 
a  single  prototype. 

I  hope  that  the  reader  will  pause  before  coming  to  any 
final  and  hostile  conclnsion  on  the  theory  of  natural  selection. 
The  reader  may  consult  my  '  Origin  of  Species '  for  a  general 
sketch  of  the  whole  subject ;  but  in  that  work  he  has  to  take 
many  statements  on  trust.  In  considering  the  theory  of 
natural  selection,  he  will  assuredly  meet  with  weighty 
difficulties,  but  these  difficuHies  relate  chiefly  to  subjects — 
such  as  the  degree  of  perfection  of  the  geological  record,  the 
means  of  distribution,  the  j)ossibility  of  transitions  in  organs, 
&c. — on  whiih  we  arc  confessedly  ignorant;  nor  do  we  kuoAV 
how  ignorant  we  are-  If  we  are  much  more  ignorant  thnii 
is  generally  supposed,  most  of  these  difficulties  wholly 
disappear.  Let  the  reader  reflect  on  the  difficulty  of  looking 
at  whole  classes  of  facts  from  a  new  point  of  view.  Let,  him 
observe  how  slowly,  but  surely,  the  noble  views  of  Lyell  on 
the  gradual  changes  now  in  j^rogress  on  the  earth's  surface 
have  been  accepted  as  sufficient  to  account  for  all  that  we  see 
in  its  past  history.  The  present  action  of  natural  selection 
may  seem  more  or  less  probable ;  but  I  believe  in  the  truth  of 


14  INTRODUCTION. 

the  theory,  because  it  collects,  under  one  point  of  view,  and 
gives  a  rational  explanation  of,  many  apparently  independent 
classes  of  facts.* 

4  In  treating  the  several  subjects  foreigners,  and  to  British  merchants 
included  in  the  present  and  my  other  and  officers  of  the  Government  re- 
works I  have  continually  been  led  to  siding  in  distant  lands,  and,  with  the 
ask  for  information  from  many  zoolo-  rarest  exceptions,  I  have  received 
gists,  botanists,  geologists,  breeders  prompt,  open-handed,  and  valuable 
of  animals,  and  horticulturists,  and  I  assistance.  I  cannot  express  too 
have  invariably  received  from  tliem  strongly  my  obligations  to  the  many 
the  most  generous  assistance.  With-  persons  who  have  assisted  me,  and 
out  such  aid  I  could  have  efiected  who,  I  am  convinced,  would  be 
little.  I  have  repeatedly  applied  equally  willing  to  assist  others  in 
for  information    and    specimens  to  any  scientific  investigation. 


Chap.  I.  DOGS:   THEIR  PARENTAGE.  15 


CHAPTER  I. 

DOMESTIC   DOGS   AND   CATS. 

ANCIENT  VAKTETIES  OF  THE  DOG RESEMBLANCE  OF  DOMESTIC  DOGS  IN  VAEIODg 

COUNTRIES  TO  NATIVE  CANINE  SPECIES — ANIMALS  NOT  ACQUAINTED  WITH 
MAN  AT  FIRST  F]:ARLESS — DOGS  RESEMBLING  WOLVES  AND  JACKALS — HABIT 
OP  BARKING  ACQUIRED  AND  LOST — FERAL  DOGS — TAN-COLOURED  EYE-SPOTS 
— PERIOD  OF  GESTATION — OFFENSIVE  ODOUR — FERTILITY  OF  THE  RACES  WHEN 
CROSSED — DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  SEVERAL  RACES  IN  PART  DUE  TO  DESCENT 
FROM  DISTINCT  SPECIES — DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  SKULL  AND  TEETH — DIFFER- 
ENCES IN  THE  BODY,  IN  CONSTITUTION — FEW  IMPORTANT  DIFFERENCES 
HAVE  BEEN  FIXED  BY  SELECTION — DIRECT  ACTION  OF  CLIMATE — WATER- 
DOGS  WITH  PALMATED  FEET — HISTORY  OF  THE  CHANGES  WHICH  CERTAIN 
ENGLISH  RACES  OF  THE  DOG  HAVE  GRADUALIA'  UNDERGONE  THROUGH 
SELECTION — EXTINCTION  OF  THE  LESS  IMPROVED  SUB-BREEDS. 

CATS,  CROSSED  WITH  SEVERAL  SPECIES — DIFFERENT  BREEDS  FOUND  ONLY  IN 
SEPARATED  COUNTRIES — DIRECT  EFFECTS  OF  THE  CONDITIONS  OF  LIFE  ^ 
FERAL   CATS — INDIVIDUAL   VARIABILITY. 

Thk  first  and  chief  point  of  interest  in  this  chapter  is,  whether 
the  nnmeroTis  domesticated  varieties  of  the  dog  have  descended 
from  a  single  wild  species,  or  from  several.  Some  authors 
believe  that  all  have  descended  from  the  wolf,  or  from  the 
jackal,  or  from  an  unknown  and  extinct  species.  Others  again 
believe,  and  this  of  late  has  been  the  favourite  tenet,  that  they 
have  descended  from  several  species,  extinct  and  recent,  more 
or  less  commingled  together.  We  shall  probably  never  be  able 
to  ascertain  their  origin  with  certainty.  Palaeontology  ^  does 
not  throw  much  light  on  the  question,  owing,  on  the  one 
hand,  to  the  close  similarity  of  the  skulls  of  extinct  as  well 
as  living  wolves  and  jackals,  and  owing,  on  the  other  hand,  to 

*  Owen,  '  British  Fossil  Mammals,*  habits.       See     also     Boyd     Dawkins, 

pp.123  to   133.      Pictet's  '  Traite  de  'Cave   Hunting,'    1874,   p.    131,   &c., 

Pal.,'  185  i,  torn.  i.  p.  202.     De  BLiin-  and  his  other  publications.     Jeitteles 

ville,  in  his  '  Osteographie,  Canid^e,'  has     discussed    in    great    detail    the 

p.    142,    has     largely    discussed    the  character  of  the  breeds  of  pre-historic 

whole    subject,    and    concludes    that  dogs:  'Die  vorgeschichtlichen  Alter- 

the  extinct  parent  of  all  domesticated  thiimer  der  Stadfc  Olmiitz,'  IJ.  TUeil, 

dogs    came   nearest   to    the    wolf  i;i  1372,  p.  44  to  »^ud, 
orgauizutiou,    and    to    the  jackal    in 


16  DOGS.  Chap.  L 

the  great  dissimilarity  of  tlie  skulls  of  fbe  sevoial  breeds  of 
the  domestic  dogs.  It  seems,  however,  that  remains  have 
been  found  in  the  later  tertiary  deposits  more  like  those  of  a 
large  dog  than  of  a  wolf,  which  favours  the  belief  of  De 
Blainville  that  our  dogs  are  the  descendants  of  a  single  ex- 
tinct species.  On  the  other  hand,  some  authors  go  so  far  as 
to  assert  that  ever}^  chief  domestic  breed  must  have  had  its 
wild  prototype.  This  latter  view  is  extremely  improbable ; 
it  allows  nothing  for  variation ;  it  passes  over  the  almost 
monstrous  character  of  some  of  the  breeds ;  and  it  almost  ne 
cessaril}^  assumes  that  a  large  number  of  species  have  become 
extinct  since  man  domesticated  the  dog  ;  whereas  we  plainly 
see  that  wild  members  of  the  dog-family  are  extirpated 
by  human  agency  with  much  difficulty;  even  so  recently 
as  1710  the  wolf  existed  in  so  small  an  island  as  Ireland. 

The  reasons  which  have  led  various  authors  to  infer  that 
our  dogs  have  descended  from  more  than  one  wild  species  are 
as  follows.^  Firstly,  the  great  difference  between  the  several 
breeds ;  but  this  will  appear  of  comparatively  little  weight, 
after  we  shall  have  seen  how  great  are  the  ditierences  between 
the  several  races  of  various  domesticated  animals  which  cer- 
tainly have  descended  from  a  single  parent-form.  Secondly, 
the  more  important  fact,  that,  at  the  most  anciently  known 
historical  periods,  several  breeds  of  the  dog  existed,  very 
unlike  each  other,  and  closely  resembling  or  identical  with 
breeds  still  alive. 

We  will  briefly  run  back  through  the  historical  records. 

2  Pallas,  I  believe,  originated  this  force  than  the  late  James  Wilson,  of 

doctrine    in   'Act.   Acad.   St.   Feters-  Edinburgh,    in    various    papers    read 

burgh,'  1780,  Part  ii.     Ehrenberg  has  before  the  Highland  Agricultural  and 

advocated  it,  as  may  be  seen   in   De  Wernerian  Societies.    Isidore  Geoffroy 

Blainville's  '  O.teographie,'  p.  79.     It  Saint-Hilaire  ('  Hist.  Nat.  Gen.,'  18G0, 

has  been  carried  to  an  extreme  extent  torn.  iii.  p.  107),  though  he  believes 

hv    Col.    Hamilton     Smith     in     the  that  most  dogs  have  descended  from 

'  Naturalist  Library,'  vols.  ix.  and  x.  the  jackal,  yet  inclines  to  the  belief 

ilr.   W.  G.   Martin   adopts  it  in   his  that   some    are    descended    from    the 

excellent  '  History  of  the  Dog,'  1845  ;  wolf.       Prof.     Gervais    ('  Hist.     Nat. 

as  does  Dr.  Morton,  as  well  as  Nott  Mamm.'  1855,  torn.  ii.  p.  69,  referric  » 

and   Gliddon,   in    the  United    States.  to   the   view   that    all    the    domest  a 

Prof.     Low,     in    his     '  Domesticated  races  are  the  modified  descendants  of  a 

Animals,'  1845,  p.  666,  comes  to  this  single  species,  after  a  long  discussion, 

same  conclusion.     No  one  has  argued  says,  "  Cette  opinion  est,  suivaut  nous 

on  this  side  with  more  clearness  and  du  moins,  la  moins  probable." 


>. 


Chap.  1,  THEIR  TAEENTAGE.  17 

The  materials  are  remarkably  deficient  betAveen  tlio  four- 
teenth century  and  the  Roman  classical  period.^  At  this 
latter  period  various  breeds,  namely  hounds,  house-dogs,  lap 
dogs,  &c.,  existed ;  but,  as  Dr.  Walther  has  remarked,  it  is 
impossible  to  recognise  the  greater  number  with  any  cer- 
tainty. Youatt,  however,  gives  a  drawing  of  a  beautiful 
sculpture  of  two  greyhound  puppies  from  the  Villa  of  An- 
toninus. On  an  Assyrian  monument,  about  640  B.C.,  an 
enormous  mastiff^  is  figured ;  and  according  to  Sir  H. 
Eawlinson  (as  I  was  informed  at  the  British  Museum), 
similar  dogs  are  still  imported  into  this  same  country.  I 
have  looked  through  the  magnificent  works  of  Lepsius  and 
Eosellini,  and  on  the  Egyptian  monuments  from  the  fourth 
to  the  twelfth  dynasties  {i.e.  from  about  3400  B.C.  to  2100  B.C.) 
several  varieties  of  the  dog  are  represented  ;  most  of  them  are 
allied  to  greyhounds  ;  at  the  later  of  these  periods  a  dog 
resembling  a  hound  is  figured,  with  drooping  ears,  but  with 
a  longer  back  and  more  pointed  head  than  in  our  hounds. 
There  is,  also,  a  turnspit,  with  short  and  crooked  legs,  closely 
resembling  the  existing  variety  ;  but  this  kind  of  monstrosity 
is  so  common  with  various  animals,  as  with  the  ancon  sheep, 
and  even,  according  to  Eengger,  with  jaguars  in  Paraguay, 
that  it  would  be  rash  to  look  at  the  monumental  animal  as 
the  parent  of  all  our  turnspits :  Colonel  iSykes  ^  also  has 
described  an  Indian  pariah  dog  as  presenting  the  same 
monstrous  character.  The  most  ancient  dog  represented  on 
the  Egyptian  monuments  is  one  of  the  most  singular ;  it 
resembles  a  greyhound,  but  has  long  pointed  ears  and  a  short 
curled  tail :  a  closely  allied  variety  still  exists  in  Northern 

^  Berjeau,  '  The  Varieties  of  the  from  the  tomb  of  the  son  of  Esar 
Dog ;  in  old  Sculptures  and  Pictures,'  Haddor.,  and  clay  models  in  tht^ 
1863.  'Der  Hund,'  von  Dr.  F.  L.  British  Museum.  Nott  and  Gliddon, 
Walther,  Giessen,  1817,  s.  48,:  this  in  their  'Types  of  Mankind,'  1854,  p 
author  seems  carefully  to  have  studied  393,  give  a  copy  of  these  drawings 
all  classical  works  on  the  subject.  This  dog  has  been  called  a  Thibetac 
See  also  Volz.  '  Beitrage  zur  Kultur-  mastiff,  but  Mr.  H.  A.  Oldfield,  who 
geschichte,'  Leipzig,  1852,  s,  115  is  familiar  with  the  so-called  Thil  el 
'Youatt  on  the  Dog,'  1845,  p.  6.  A  mastiff,  and  has  examined  the  draw- 
very  full  histoiy  is  given  by  De  ings  in  the  British  Museum,  informs 
rdainville  in  hiS  '  Osteographie,  me  that  he  considers  them  different. 
Canidse.'  ^  '  Proc.  Zoolog,  Soc.,'  July  l'2th., 


i 


J  have  seen  drawings  of  this  dog       1831. 


18  DOGS.  Chat.  I 

Africa ;  for  Mr.  E.  Vernon  Harcourt  ^  states  tliat  tlie  Ara"b 
boar-liound  is  "  an  eccentric  hieroglyphic  animal,  Guch  as 
Cheops  once  hunted  with,  somewhat  resembling  the  rough 
Scotch  deer-hound  ;  their  tails  are  curled  tight  round  on  their 
backs,  and  their  ears  stick  out  at  right  angles."  With  this 
most  ancient  variety  a  pariah-like  dog  coexisted. 

We  thus  see  that,  at  a  period  between  four  and  five  thou- 
sand years  ago,  various  breeds,  viz.  pariah  dogs,  greyhounds, 
common  hounds,  mastiffs,  house-dogs,  lapdogs,  and  turnspits, 
existed,  more  or  less  closely  resembling  our  present  breeds. 
But  there  is  not  sufficient  evidence  that  any  of  these  ancient 
dogs  belonged  to  the  same  identical  sub-varieties  with  our 
present  dogs."^  As  long  as  man  was  believed  to  have  existed 
on  this  earth  only  about  6000  years,  this  fact  of  the  great 
diversity  of  the  breeds  at  so  early  a  period  was  an  argument 
of  much  weight  that  they  had  proceeded  from  several  wild 
sources,  for  there  would  not  have  been  sufficient  time  for  their 
divergence  and  modification.  But  now  that  we  know,  from 
the  discovery  of  flint  tools  embedded  with  the  remains  of 
extinct  animals  in  districts  which  have  since  undergone  great 
geographical  changes,  that  man  has  existed  for  an  incom- 
parably longer  period,  and  bearing  in  mind  that  the  most 
barbarous  nations  possess  domestic  dogs,  the  argument  from 
insufficient  time  falls  away  greatly  in  value. 

Long  before  the  period  of  any  historical  record  the  dog  was 
domesticated  in  Europe.  In  the  Danish  Middens  of  the  Neo- 
lithic or  Newer  Stone  period,  bones  of  a  canine  animal  are 
imbedded,  and  Steenstrup  ingeniously  argues  that  these  be- 
longed to  a  domestic  dog  ;  for  a  ver}^  large  proportion  of  the 
bones  of  birds  preserved  in  the  refuse  consists  of  long  bones, 
which  it  was  found  on  trial  dogs  cannot  devour.^    This  ancient 

^  '  Sporting  in  Algeria,'  p.  51.  curl-tailed  greyhound,  like  that  repre- 

'  Berjeau   gives  fac-similes  of  the  sented   on    the    most    ancient    monu- 

Egyptian  drawings.     ^Ir.  C.  L.  Martin  ments,    is    common    in    Borneo  ;  but 

in  his  'History  of   the    Dog,'   1845,  the  Rajah.  Sir  J.  Brooke,  informs  me 

copies  several  figures  from  the  Egypt-  that  no  such  dog  exists  there. 

ian     monuments,    and    speaks    with  *  These,  and  the  following  facts  ou 

mrfch  confidence  with  respect  to  their  the  Danish  remains,  are  taken   from 

identity  with  still  living  dogs.  Messrs.  M.  Morlot's  most  interesting  memoir 

Nottand  Gliddun  (' Types  of  Mankind,  in  'Soc.  Vaudoise  des  So.  Nat.*  tom.  vi., 

1854,  p.  388)  give  stifl  more  numerous  1860,  pp.  281,  299,  '620. 
fiquves.     Mr.  Gliddon  asserts  that  a 


Chap.  I.  THEIR  PARENTAGE.  19 

dog  was  succeeded  in  Denmark  during  the  Bronze  period  by 
a  larger  kind,  presenting  certain  difterences,  and  this  again 
during  the  Iron  period,  b}^  a  still  larger  kind.  In  Switzer- 
land, we  hear  from  Prof.  Kiititneyer,^  that  during  the  Keo- 
lithic  period  a  domesticated  dog  of  middle  size  existed,  which 
in  its  skull  was  about  equally  remote  from  the  wolf  and  jackal, 
and  partook  of  the  characters  of  our  hounds  and  setters  or 
spaniels  (Jagdhund  und  Wachtelhund).  Kiitimeyer  insists 
strongly  on  the  constancy  of  form  during  a  very  long  period 
of  time  of  this  the  most  ancient  known  dog.  During  the 
Bronze  period  a  larger  dog  appeared,  and  this  closely  re- 
sembled in  its  jaw  a  dog  of  the  same  age  in  Denmark. 
Remains  of  two  notably  distinct  varieties  of  the  dog  were 
found  b}"  Schmerling  in  a  cave  ;^°  but  their  age  cannot  be 
positively  deteriiiined. 

The  existence  of  a  single  race,  remarkably  constant  in  form 
during  the  whole  jSeolithic  period,  is  an  interesting  fact  in 
contrast  with  what  we  see  of  the  changes  which  the  races 
underwent  during  the  period  of  the  successive  Egyptian 
monuments,  and  in  contrast  with  our  existing  dogs.  The 
character  of  this  animal  during  the  Keolithic  period,  as  given 
by  Elitimeyer,  supports  De  Blainville's  view  that  our  varieties 
have  descended  from  an  unknown  and  extinct  form.  But  we 
should  not  forget  that  we  know  nothing  with  respect  to  the 
antiquit}'  of  man  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  world.  I'he 
succession  of  the  diiierent  kinds  of  dogs  in  Switzerland  and 
Denmark  is  thought  to  be  due  to  the  immigration  of  conquer- 
ing tribes  bringing  with  them  their  dogs ;  and  this  view 
accords  with  the  belief  that  different  wild  canine  animals 
were  domesticated  in  different  regions.  Independently  of 
the  immigration  of  new  races  of  man,  we  know  from  the 
wide-spread  presence  of  bronze,  composed  of  an  alloy  of  tin, 
how  much  commerce  there  must  have  been  throug-hont 
Europe  at  an  extremely  remote  period,  and  dogs  would  then 
probably  have  been  bartered.  At  the  present  time,  amongst 
the  savages  of  the  interior  of  Guiana,  the  Taruma  Indians 

»  'Die  Fauna  der  Pfahlbauten,'  1S61,  s.  117,  162. 
10  De  Blaiuville,  '  Osteograpliie,  CanidiE.' 


20  DOGS.  Uhap.  1 

are  considered  the  best  trainers  of  dogs,  and  possess  a  largo 
breed  wliich.  they  barter  at  a  high  price  with  othei 
tribes.^^ 

The  main  argument  in  favour  of  the  several  breeds  of  the 
dog  being  the  descendants  of  distinct  wild  stocks,  is  their 
resemblance  in  various  countries  to  distinct  species  still 
existing  there.  It  must,  however,  be  admitted  that  the  com- 
parison between  the  wild  and  domesticated  animal  has  been 
made  but  in  few  cases  with  sufficient  exactnet^s.  Before 
entering  on  details,  it  will  be  well  to  show  that  there  is  no 
a  priori  difficulty  in  the  belie  f  that  several  canine  species 
have  been  domesticated.  Members  of  the  dog  family  in- 
habit nearly  the  whole  world;  and  several  species  agree 
pretty  closely  in  habits  and  structure  with  our  several 
domesticated  dogs.  Mr.  Galton  has  shown  ^^  how  fond 
savao-es  are  of  keeping  and  taming  animals  of  all  kinds. 
Social  animals  are  the  most  easily  subjugated  by  man, 
and  several  species  of  Canida^  hunt  in  packs.  It  deser\'es 
notice,  as  bearing  on  other  animals  as  well  as  on  the 
dog,  that  at  an  extremely  ancient  period,  when  man  first 
entered  any  country,  the  animals  living  there  would  liave 
felt  no  instinctive  or  inherited  fear  of  him,  and  would  conse 
quently  have  been  iamed  far  more  easily  than  at  piesent 
For  instance,  when  the  Falkland  Islands  were  first  visited  by 
man,  the  large  wolf-like  dog  (Canis  antarcticus)  fearlessly 
came  to  meet  Byron's  sailors,  who,  mistaking  this  ignorant 
curiosity  for  ferocity,  ran  into  the  water  to  avoid  them :  even 
recently  a  man,  by  holding  a  piece  of  meat  in  one  hand  and  a 
knife  in  the  other,  could  sometimes  stick  them  at  night.  On 
an  island  in  the  Sea  of  Aral,  when  first  discovered  by 
Butakoff,  the  saigak  antelopes,  which  are  "  generally  very 
timid  and  watchfnl,  did  not  fly  from  us,  but  on  the  contrary 
looked  at  us  with  a  sort  of  curiosity."  So,  again,  on  the 
shores  of  the  Mauritius,  the  manatee  was  not  at  first  in  the 
least  afraid  of  man,  and  thus  it  has  been  in  several  quarters 
pf  the  woj-ld  with  seals  and  the  morse.     I  have  elsewhere 

*^  Sir  R.  Schomburgk  has  given  me       xiii.,  1843,  p.  65. 
inftirmation    on  this  head.     See  also  ^^  '  Domestication     of     Animals : 

'Journal   of  R.  Geograph.  Soc'  vol.       Ethnological  Soc,  Dec.  22nd,  1863. 


ohap.  l  theie  parentage.  21 

shown  ^^  liow  slowlj  the  natiA^e  birds  of  several  islando  havp 
acquired  and  inherited  a  salutary  dread  of  man  :  at  the  Gala- 
pagos Archipelago  I  pushed  with  the  muzzle  of  my  gun 
hawks  from  a  branch,  and  held  out  a  pitcher  of  water  for 
other  birds  to  alight  on  and  diink.  Quadrupeds  and  birds 
which  have  seldom  been  disturbed  by  man,  dread  him  no 
more  than  do  our  English  birds,  the  cows,  or  horses  grazing 
in  the  fields. 

It  is  a  more  imjDortant  consideration  that  several  canine 
species  evince  (as  will  be  shown  in  a  futuie  chapter)  no 
strong  repugnance  or,  inability  to  breed  under  confinement; 
and  the  incapacity  to  breed  under  confinement  is  one  of  the 
commonest  bars  to  domestication.  Lastly,  savages  set  the 
highest  value,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  chapter  on  Selection,  on 
dogs :  even  half-tamed  animals  are  highly  useful  to  them  : 
the  Indians  of  North  America  cross  their  half-wild  dogs  with 
wolves,  and  thus  render  them  even  wilder  than  before,  but 
bolder :  the  savages  of  Guiana  catch  and  partially  tame  and 
use  the  whelps  of  two  wild  species  of  Cams,  as  do  the  savages 
of  Australia  those  of  the  wild  Dingo.  Mr.  Philip  King  in- 
forms me  that  he  once  trained  a  wild  Dingo  puppy  to  drive 
cattle,  and  found  it  very  useful.  Fiom  these  fceve]al  con- 
siderations we  see  that  there  is  no  difiiculty  in  believing  that 
man  might  have  domesticated  various  canine  species  in  dif- 
ferent countries.  It  would  indeed  have  been  a  strang-e  fact 
if  one  species  alone  had  been  domesticated  throughout  the 
world. 

We  will  now  enter  into  details.  The  accurate  and  sagacious 
Richardson  says,  "  The  resemblance  between  the  Northern 
American  wolves  (Cams  lupus,  var.  occidentalism  and  the 
domestic  dogs  of  the  Indians  is  so  great  that  the  size  and 
strength  of  the  wolf  seems  to  be  the  only  difference.  I  have 
more  than  once  mistaken  a  band  of  wolves  for  the  dogs  of 
a  party  of  Indians ;  and  the  howl  of  the  animals  of  both 
species  is  prolonged  so  exactly  in  the  same  key  that  oven  the 

''  *  Journal    of    Researches,*    &c.,       of  the  antelope,  see  *  Journal   R.ij'jil 
1845,  p.  393.     With  i-espect  to  Canis       Geograph.  Soc.,'  vol.  xxiii.  p.  94. 
antarcticu^,  see  p.  193.     For  the  rase 


22  DOGS.  OuAP.  I 

practis(3cl  ear  of  tlic  Indian  fails  at  times  to  discriminate  them.' 
He  adds  that  the  more  northern  Esquimaux  dogs  are  not  onlj 
extremely  like  the  grey  wolves  of  the  Arctic  circle  in  form 
and  colour,  but  also  nearly  equal  them  in  size.  Dr.  Kauo 
has  often  seen  in  his  teams  of  sledge- dogs  the  oblique  ejti 
(a  character  on  which  some  naturalists  lay  great  stress),  the 
drooping  tail,  and  scared  look  of  the  wolf.  In  disposition 
the  Esquimaux  dogs  differ  little  from  wolves,  and,  according 
to  Dr.  Hayes,  they  are  capable  of  no  attachment  to  man,  and 
are  so  savage  that  when  hungry  they  will  attack  even  their 
masters.  According  to  Kane  they  readily  become  feral. 
Their  affinity  is  so  close  with  wolves  that  they  frequently 
cross  with  them,  and  the  Indians  take  the  whelps  of  wolves 
"  to  improve  the  breed  of  their  dogs."  The  half-bred  wolves 
sometimes  (Lamare-Picquot)  cannot  be  tamed,  "  though  this 
case  is  rare ;"  but  they  do  not  become  thoroughly  well  broken 
in  till  the  second  or  third  generation.  These  facts  show  that 
there  can  be  but  little,  if  any,  sterility  between  the  Esqui- 
maux dog  and  the  wolf,  for  otherwise  they  would  not  be  used 
to  improve  the  breed.  As  Dr.  Hayes  says  of  these  dogs, 
"  reclaimed  wolves  they  doubtless  are."  ^* 

Korth  America  is  inhabited  by  a  second  kind  of  wolf,  the 
prairie-wolf  (Canis  latrans),  which  is  now  looked  at  by  all 
naturalists  as  specifically  distinct  from  the  common  wolf ;  and 
is,  according  to  Mr.  J.  K.  Lord,  in  some  respects  intermediate 
in  habits  between  a  wolf  and  a  fox.  Sir  J.  Eichardson,  after 
describing  the  Hare  Indian  dog,  which  differs  in  many  respects 
from  the  Esquimaux  dog,  says,  "It  bears  the  same  relation  to 
the  prairie-wolf  that  the  Esquimaux  dog  does  to  the  great 

"  The  authorities  for  the  foregoing  crossing  in  the  eastern  parts  of  North 

statements  are  as  follow  : — Richard-  America.     Seeman,  in  his  '  Voyage  of 

son,    in    'Fauna    Boreali-Araeiicana,'  H.M.S.   ffcrald,  18i8,   vol.   ii.  p.  2G, 

18'29,  pp.  64,  75;  Dr.  Kane,  'Arctic  says  the  wolf  is  often  caught  ly  the 

Explorations,'  1856,  vol.   i.   pp.   398,  Esquimaux  for  the  purpose  of  crossip.g 
455  ;  Dr.  Hayes,  '  Arctic  Boat  Jour-     .  with  their  dogs,  and  thus  ? ddiug  to 

ney,'     1860,      p.      167.       Franklin's  their  size  and  strength.     M.  Lamare- 

'  Narrative,'  vol.  i.  p.  269,  gives  the  Picquot,  in  'Bull,  de  la  Soc.  d'Accli- 

case  of  three  whelps  of  a  black  wolf  mat.'  torn,  vii.,  1860,  p.  148,  gives  a 

being  carried  away   by   the   Indians.  good  account  of  the  half-bvcd  Eequi 

Parry,  Richardsou,  and   others,  give  maux  dog.s. 
accounts  of  woives  and  dogs  naturally 


Chap.  L  THEIK   PARENTAGE  23 

g-rey  wolf."  He  could,  m  fact,  detect  no  marked  difference 
between  them;  and  Messrs.  Nott  and  Gliddon  give  additional 
details  showing  their  close  resemblance.  The  dogs  derived  from 
the  above  two  aboriginal  sources  cross  together  and  with  the 
wild  wolves,  at  least  with  the  C.  occidentalism  and  with  Eurcpenu 
dogs.  In  Florida,  according  to  Bartram,  the  black  wolf-dog 
of  the  Indians  differs  in  nothing  from  the  wolves  of  that 
country  except  in  barking. ^^ 

Turning  to  the  southern  parts  of  the  new  world,  Columbus 
found  two  kinds  of  dogs  in  the  West  Indies  ;  and  Fernandez  ^^ 
describes  three  in  Mexico  :  some  of  these  native  dogs  were 
dumb — that  is,  did  not  bark.  In  Guiana  it  has  been  knov/n 
since  the  time  of  Buffon  that  the  natives  cross  their  dogs 
with  an  aboriginal  species,  apparently  the  Canis  cancrivorus. 
Sir  E.  Schomburgk,  who  has  so  carefully  explored  these 
regions,  writes  to  me,  "  I  have  been  repeatedly  told  by  the 
Arawaak  Indians,  who  reside  near  the  coast,  that  they  cross 
their  dogs  with  a  wild  species  to  improve  the  breed,  and 
individual  dogs  have  been  shown  to  me  which  certainly 
resembled  the  C.  cancrivorus  much  more  than  the  common 
breed.  It  is  but  seldom  that  the  Indians  keep  the  C.  cancri- 
vorus for  domestic  purposes,  nor  is  the  Ai,  another  species 
of  wild  dog,  and  which  I  consider  to  be  identical  with  the 
Dusicyon  silvestris  of  H.  Smith,  now  much  used  by  the  Are- 
cunas  for  the  purpose  of  hunting.  The  dogs  of  the  Taruma 
Indians  are  quite  distinct,  and  resemble  Buffon's  St.  Domingo 
greyhound."  It  thus  appears  that  the  natives  of  G  uiana  have 
partially  domesticated  two  aboriginal  species,  and  still  cross 
their  dogs  with  them  ;  these  two  species  belong  to  a  quite  dif- 
ferent type  from  the  North  American  and  European  wolves.  A 

"  'Fauna  Boreali-Americana,'  vol.  ii.  p.  218),  says  that  fehe  Indian 

1823,    pp.    73,    78,    80.       Nott    and  dog  of  the  Spokans,  near  the  Rocky 

Gliddon,  '  Types  of  Mankind,' p.  383.  Mountains,   "is   beyond   all   question 

The  naturalist  and  traveller  Bartram  nothing  more  than  a  tamed  Cayote  ^r 

IS  quoted  by  Hamilton  Smith,  in  '  Na-  prairie-wolf,"  or  Canis  latrans. 

turalist  Lib.,'  vol.  x.  p.  156.  A  Mexican  '^  I  quote  this  from  Mr.  R.  Hill's 

domestic  dog  seems  also  to  resemble  a  excellent    account    of    the   Alco    oi 

wild  dog  of  the  same  country ;  but  domestic    dog    of  Mexico,   iu  Gosse's 

this  may  be  the  prairie-wolf.  Another  '  Naturalist's    Sojourn    iu   Jftmj\icii, 

capable  judge,  Mr.  J.  K.  Lord  ('Tlio  1851,  p.  329. 
Naturalist  iu  Vancouver  Island,'  18fi6, 


2 1  DOGS.  Chap.  I. 

f^areful  ol)server,  Eengger,^^  gives  reasons  for  helieYing  that  a 
hairless  dog  was  domesticated  when  America  was  first  visited 
by  Europeans  :  some  of  these  dogs  in  Paraguay  are  still  dumb, 
and  Tschudi  ^^  states  that  they  suffer  from  cold  in  the  Cor- 
dillera. I'his  naked  dog  is,  however  quite  distinct  from  that 
found  preserved  in  the  ancient  Peruvian  burial-places,  and  do- 
scribed  by  Tschudi,  under  the  name  of  Canis  ingce,  as  with- 
standing cold  well  and  as  barking.  It  is  not  known  whether 
these  two  distinct  kinds  of  dog  are  the  descendants  of  native 
species,  and  it  might  be  argued  that  when  man  first  migrated 
into  America  he  brought  with  him  from  the  Asiatic  continent 
dogs  which  had  not  learned  to  bark ;  but  this  view  does  not 
seem  probable,  as  the  natives  along  the  line  of  their  march  from 
the  north  reclaimed,  as  we  have  seen,  at  least  two  N.  American 
species  of  Canidai. 

Turning  to  the  Old  World,  some  European  dogs  closely 
resemble  the  wolf ;  thus  the  shepherd  dog  of  the  plains  of 
Hungary  is  white  or  reddish-brown,  has  a  sharp  nose,  short, 
erect  ears,  shaggy  coat,  and  bushy  tail,  and  so  much  resembles 
a  wolf  that  Mr.  Paget,  who  gives  this  desci  iption,  says  he  hao 
known  a  Hungarian  mistake  a  wolf  for  one  of  his  own  dogs. 
J  eitteles,  also,  remarks  on  the  close  similarity  of  the  Hungarian 
dog  and  wolf.  Shepherd  dogs  in  Italy  must  anciently  have 
closely  resembled  wolves,  for  Columella  (vii.  12)  advises  that 
white  dogs  be  kept,  adding,  "  pastor  album  probat,  ne  pro  lupo 
canem  feriat."  Several  accounts  have  been  given  of  dogs  and 
wolves  crossing  naturally ;  and  Pliny  asserts  that  the  Gauls 
tied  their  female  dogs  in  the  woods  that  they  might  cross 
with  wolves. ^^  The  European  wolf  differs  slightly  from  that 
of  Kortli  America,  and  has  been  ranked  by  many  naturalista 
as  a  distinct  species.  The  common  wolf  of  India  is  also  by 
some  esteemed  as  a  third  species,  and  here  again  we  find  a 

^^  '  Natiirgeschichte      der     Sauge-  (Eng.  transl.),  8th  book,  ch.  xl.,  aiioat 

Ihiere  von  Paraguay,'  1830,  s.  151.  the  Gauls  crossing  their  dogs.    See  aho 

^*  Quoted  in  Humboldt's  'Aspects  Aristotle,  'Hist.  Animal.'  lib.  viii.  c. 

of  Nature'  (Eng.   trans.),   vol.   i.   p.  28.     For  good  evidence  about  wolves 

108.  and  dogs  naturally  crossing  near  tho 

^^  Paget's  'Travels  in  Hungaiy  and  Pyrenees,  see  M.  Mauduyt,  '  Du  Loup 

Transylvania,' vol.  i.  p.  601.    Jeitteles,  et  de  ses  Races,'  Poitiers,   1851;  also 

'  Fauna  Hungarise  Sup<^rioris,'  1862,  s.  Pallas, in  'Acta  Acad.  St. Petersburg!!, 

IS.     See  Pliny,  'Hist,  of  the  World'  1780,  part  ii.  p.  94. 


Chap.  L  THEIR   PATlENTAGE.  25 

marked   resemblance    between  the    pariali    logs   of    certain 
districts  of  India  and  the  Indian  wolf.^^ 

With  respect  to  Jackals,  Isidore  Geoffroy  Saint-Hilaire  ^^ 
says  that  not  one  constant  difference  can  be  pointed  out  between 
ilieir  structure  and  that  of  the  smaller  races  of  dogs.  They 
agree  closely  in  habits  :  jackals,  when  tamed  and  called  by 
their  master,  v--ag  their  tails,  lick  his  hands,  crouch,  and  throw 
themselves  or  their  backs ;  they  smell  at  the  tails  of  other 
dogs,  and  void  their  urine  sideways ;  they  roll  on  carrion  or 
on  animals  which  they  have  killed  ;  and,  lastly,  when  in  high 
spirits,  they  run  round  in  circles  or  in  a  figure  of  eight,  with 
their  tails  between  their  legs.^'-^  A  number  of  excellent 
naturalists,  from  the  time  of  Giildenstadt  to  that  of  Ehren- 
berg,  Hemprich,  and  Cretzschmar,  have  expressed  themselves 
in  the  strongest  terms  with  respect  to  the  resemblance  of  the 
half-domestic  dogs  of  Asia  and  Egypt  to  jackals.  M.  Kord- 
mann,  for  instance,  says,  "  Les  chiens  d'Awhasie  ressemblent 
etonnamment  a  des  chacals."  Ehrenberg  ^^  asserts  that  the 
domestic  dogs  of  Lower  Egypt,  and  certain  mummied  dogs, 
have  for  their  wild  tj'pe  a  species  of  wolf  (C  lupastei-)  of  the 
country;  whereas  the  domestic  dogs  of  Kubia  and  certain 
other  mummied  dogs  have  the  closest  relation  to  a  wild  species 
of  the  same  country,  viz.  C.  sahhar,  v/hich  is  only  a  form  of 
the  common  jackal.  Pallas  asserts  that  jackals  and  dogs 
sometimes  naturally  cross  in  the  East;  and  a  case  is  on 
record  in  Algeria. ^'^  The  greater  number  of  naturalists 
divide  the  jackals  of  Asia  and  Africa  into  several  species,  but 
Eome  few  rank  them  all  as  one. 

"°  ]  give  this  on  excellent  authority.  See  also  '  Hist.  Nat.  des  Mammiferes, 

namely,  Mr.  Blyth  (under  the  signa-  par  Prof.  Gervais,  1855,  torn.  ii.  p.  60. 

ture   of  Zoo|ihilus),    in    the    '  Indian  ^^  Also    Giildenstadt,   '  Nov.   Com- 

Sporting  Review,'  Oct.  1856,  p.  134.  ment.     Acad.  Petrop.,'  torn,  xx.,  pro 

Mr.    Blyth  states  that  he  was  struck  anno  1775,  p.  449.     Also  Salvin,  ijj 

v.'ith  the  resemblance  between  a  brush-  'Land  and  Water,'  Oct.  1869. 

tailed  race  of  pariah-dogs,  north-west  ^^  Quoted  by  De  Blainville  in  his 

of  Cawnpore,  and  the  Indian  wolf.    He  'Osteographie,  Canidse,' pp.  79,  98. 

gives     corroborative    evidence    with  ^*  See  Pallas,   in   '  Act.  Acad    St. 

respect  to  the  dogs  of  the  valley  of  Petersburgh,'    1780,    part    ii.    p.    91. 

the  Nerbudda,  For  Algeria,    see    [sid.    Geoffrey  St.- 

-^  For   numei'ous    and    interesting  Hilaire,  'Hist.  Nat.  Gen.,'  tom.  iii.  p. 

details  on  the  resemblance  of  dogs  and  177.     In  both  countries  it  is  the  male 

jackals,  see  Isid.  Geotlioy  St. -Hi' aire,  jackal     which     pairs     with     female 

*Hist.  Nat.  Geu.,'  1860,  tom.  iii.  p.  lUl.  domestic  dogs. 


26  DOGS.  Chap.  I 

I  may  add  that  the  domestic  dogs  on  the  coast  of  Guinea 
are  fox-like  animals,  and  are  dumb.^^  On  the  east  coast  of 
Africa,  between  lat.  4^  and  6^  south,  and  about  ten  days' journey 
in  the  interior,  a  semi-domestic  dog,  as  the  Eev.  S.  Erhardt 
informs  me,  is  kept,  which  the  natives  assert  is  derived  from 
a  similar  wild  animal.  Lichtenstein  ^^  says  that  the  dogs  of 
the  Bosjemans  present  a  striking  resemblance  even  in  colour 
(excepting  the  black  stripe  down  the  back)  with  the  C.  meso- 
melas  of  South  Africa.  Mr.  E,  Layard  informs  me  that  he 
has  seen  a  Caffre  dog  which  closely  resembled  an  Esquimaux 
dog.  In  Australia  tlie  Dingo  is  both  domesticated  and  wild ; 
though  this  animal  may  have  been  introduced  aboriginally 
by  man,  yet  it  must  be  considered  as  almost  an  endemic  form, 
for  its  remains  have  been  found  in  a  similar  state  of  preser- 
vation and  associated  with  extinct  mammals,  so  that  its 
introduction  must  have  been  ancient.^^ 

From  this  resemblance  of  the  half-domesticated  dogs  in 
several  countries  to  the  wild  species  still  living  there, — from 
the  facility  with  which  they  can  often  be  crossed  together, — 
from  even  half-tamed  animals  being  so  much  valued  by 
sava^^es,  — and  from  the  other  circumstances  previously  re- 
marked on  which  favour  their  domestication,  it  is  highly 
probable  that  the  domestic  dogs  of  the  world  are  descended 
from  ^wo  well-defined  species  of  wolf  (viz,  G.  lupus  and 
C.  latrans),  and  from  two  or  three  other  doubtful  species 
(namely,  the  European,  Indian,  and  Xorth  African  wolves)  ; 
from  at  least  one  or  two  South  American  canine  species ; 
from  several  races  or  sj^ecies  of  jackal ;  and  perhaps  from 
one  or  more  extinct  species.  Although  it  is  possible  or  even 
probable  that  domesticated  dogs,  introduced  into  any  country 
and  bred  there  for  many  generations,  might  acquire  some  of 
the  characters  proper  to  the  aboriginal  Canidse  of  the  country, 
we  can  hardly  thus  account  for  introduced  dogs  having  given 

26  John  Barhut's  '  Description  of  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.'  (3rd  series),  vol. 
the  Coast  of  Guinea  in  1746.'  ix.,  1862,  p.  147.     The  Dingo  diifers 

28  '  Travels  in  South  Africa,'  vol.  ii.  from  the  dogs  of  the  central  Polyne- 

p_  272.  sian  islands.     Dielienbach   remarks 

27  Selwyn,  Geology  of  Victoria ;  ('  Travels,'  vol.  ii.  p:  45)  that  the 
'Journal  of  GeologySoc.,'  vol.  xiv.,  native  New  Zealand  dog  also  differs 
1858,  p.  536,  and  vol.  xvi.,  1860,   p.  from  the  Dingo. 

148 ;  and  Prof.  M'Coy,  in '  Annals  and 


Ch\p.  I.  THEIR   PAEENTAGE.  27 

rise  to  two  breeds  in  the  same  coTintry,  resembling  two  of  its 
aboriginal  species,  as  in  the  above-given  cases  of  Gniana  and 
of  Korth  America.^^ 

It  cannot  be  objected  to  the  view  of  several  canine  species 
having  been  anciently  domesticated,  that  these  animals  are 
tamed  with  difficulty  :  facts  have  been  already  given  on  tliis 
head,  but  I  may  add  that  the  young  of  the  Canis  primceims  of 
India  Avere  tamed  by  Mr.  Hodgson,^^  and  became  as  sensible 
of  caresses,  and  manifested  as  much  intelligence,  as  any 
sporting  dog  of  the  same  age.  There  is  not  much  difference, 
as  we  have  already  shown  and  shall  further  see,  in  habits 
between  the  domestic  dogs  of  the  North  American  Indians  and 
the  wolves  of  that  country,  or  between  the  Eastern  pariah 
dogs  and  jackals,  or  between  the  dogs  which  have  run  wild 
in  various  countries  and  the  several  natural  species  of  the 
family.  The  habit  of  barking,  however,  which  is  almost 
universal  with  domesticated  dogs,  forms  an  exception,  as  it 
does  not  characterise  a  single  natural  species  of  the  family, 
though  I  am  assured  that  the  Canis  latrans  of  North  America 
utters  a  noise  which  closely  approaches  a  bark.  But  this 
habit  is  soon  lost  by  dogs  when  they  become  feral  and  is  soon 
reacquired  when  they  are  again  domesticated.  The  case  of 
the  wild  dogs  on  the  island  of  Juan  Fernandez  having  become 
dumb  has  often  been  quoted,  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  ^° 
that  the  dumbness  ensued  in  the  course  of  thirty-three  years ; 
on  the  other  hand,  dogs  taken  from  this  island  by  Ulloa 
slowly  reacquired  the  habit  of  barking.  The  Mackenzie- 
river  dogs,  of  the  Canis  latrans  type,  when  brought  to  Eng- 
land, never  learned  to  bark  properly ;  but  one  bom  in  the 
Zoological  Gardens  ^^  "  made  his  voice  sound  as  loudly  as  an}' 
other  dog  of  the  same  age  and  size."     According  to  Professoi 

28  These  latter  remarks   afford,   I  navianAdventures,'1854,vol.i.p.  460. 

think,  a  sufficient  answer  to  some  With  respect  to  the  jackal,  566  Pi'of. 

criticisms    by   Mr.  Wallace,  on  the  Gervais, '  Hist.  Nat.  Mamm.,'  torn.  ii. 

multiple  origin    of   dogs,  given  in  p.  61.     With  respect  to  the  aguara  of 

Lyell's  '  Principles  of  Geology,'  1872,  Paraguay,  see  Eengger's  work, 
vol.  ii.  p.  295.  ^  30  Pou'lin,  in   '  Mem.  present,  par 

29 '  Proceedings  Zoolog.  Soc.,'  1833,  divers  Savans,'  tom.  vi.  p.  341. 
p.  112.    /See,  also,  on  the  taming  of  3i  Martin,  '  History   of  the   Dog,' 

the  common  wolf,  L.  Lloyd, '  Scandi-  p.  14. 


28  DOGS.  Chap.  L 

Nillson,22  g^  wolf-whelp  reared  by  a  bitch  barks.  I,  Geoffroy 
Saint-Hilaire  exhibited  a  jackal  which  barked  with  the  same 
tone  as  any  conmion  dog.^^  An  interesting  account  has  been 
given  by  Mr.  G.  Clarke  ^*  of  some  dogs  run  wild  on  Juan  do 
Nova,  in  the  Indian  Ocean ;  "  they  had  entirely  lost  the 
faculty,  of  barking ;  they  had  no  inclination  for  the  company 
of  other  dogs,  nor  did  they  acquire  their  voice."  during  a 
captivity  of  several  months.  On  the  island  they  "  congregate 
in  vast  packs,  and  catch  sea-birds  with  as  much  address  as 
foxes  could  display."  The  feral  dogs  of  La  Plata  have  not 
become  dumb  ;  they  are  of  large  size,  hunt  singly  or  in  packs, 
and  burrow  holes  for  their  young.^^  In  these  habits  the 
feral  dogs  of  La  Plata  resemble  wolves  and  jackals ;  both  of 
which  hunt  either  singly  or  in  packs,  and  burrow  holes. ^° 
These  feral  dogs  have  not  become  uniform  in  colour  on  Juan 
Fernandez,  Juan  de  Nova,  or  La  Plata.^'^  In  Cuba  the  feral 
dogs  are  described  by  Poeppig  as  nearly  all  mouse-coloured, 
with  short  ears  and  light-blue  eyes.  In  St.  Domingo,  Col. 
Ham.  Smith  says  ^^  that  the  feral  dogs  are  very  large,  like 
greyhounds,  of  a  uniform  pale  blue-ash,  with  small  ears,  and 
large  light-brown  eyes.  Even  the  wild  Dingo,  though  so 
anciently  naturalised  in  Australia,  "  varies  considerably  i]i 
colour,"  as  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  P.  P.  King :  a  half-bred 
Dingo  reared  in  England  ^^  showed  signs  of  wishing  to 
burrow. 

From  the  several  foregoing  facts  we  see  that  reversion  in  the 
feral  state  gives  no  indication  of  the  colour  or  size  of  the  aboriginal 


'2  Quoted  by  L.  Lloyd  in  *  Field  ^^  With  respect  to  \A'-olves  burrow- 
Sports  of  North  of  Europe,'  vol.  i.  p.  ing  holes,  see  Richardson,  '  Fauna 
387.  Boreali-Americana,' p.  64;  and  Bech- 

*3  Quatrefages,  '  Soc.  d'Acclimat.,*  stein, 'Naturgeschichte  Deutschlands,' 

May  11th,  1863,  p.  7.  b.  i.  s.  617. 

'"*  '  Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.'  "  g^^    Poeppig,    '  Reise    in  Chile,' 

vol.  XV.,  1845,  p.  140.  B.  i.  s.  290  ;   Mr.  G.  Clarke,  as  above  ; 

'5  Azara,    'Voyages    dans   I'Amer.  and  Rengger,  s.  155. 

M(?rid.,'  torn.  i.  p.381 ;  his  account  is  ^^  Dogs,  'Nat.  Library,'  vol,  x,  p. 

fully  confirmed  by  Rengger.     Quatre-  121  ;  an  endemic  South  American  dog 

fao-es    gives    an    account    of  a    bitch  seems  also  to  have  become  feral  in  this 

brought    from   Jerusalem    to    France  island.     See  Gosse's  '  Jg,maica,'  p.  340. 

which  burrowed  a  hole  and  littered  ^^  Low,   *  DomestiCvited    Aaiuaak, 

ru  it.     See  '  Discours,  Exposition  des  p.  650. 
Races  Canines,'  1865,  p.  3. 


Chap.  I.  THEIK   PARENTAGE.  29 

parent-species.  One  fact,  liowever,  with  respect  to  the  coloniing  of 
domestic  dogs,  I  at  one  time  hoped  might  have  thrown  some  b'ght 
on  their  origin;  and  it  is  worth  giving,  as  showing  how  colour ing 
follows  laws,  even  in  so  anciently  and  thoronghly  domesticated  an 
animal  as  the  dog.  Black  dogs  with  tan-coloured  feet,  whatever 
breed  they  may  belong  to,  almost  invariably  have  a  tan- coloured 
spot  on  the  upper  and  inner  corners  of  each  eye,  and  their  lips  are 
generally  thus  coloured.  I  have  seen  only  two  exceptions  to  this 
rule,  namely,  in  a  spaniel  and  terrier.  Dogs  of  a  light-brown 
colour  often  have  a  lighter,  yellowish-brown  spot  over  the  eyes; 
sometimes  the  spot  is  white,  and  in  a  mongrel  terrier  the  spot  was 
black.  Mr.  Waring  kindly  examined  for  me  a  stud  of  fifteen  grey- 
hounds in  Suffolk :  eleven  of  them  were  black,  or  black  and  white, 
or  brindled,  and  these  had  no  eye-spots ;  but  three  were  red  and 
one  slaty-blue,  and  these  four  had  dark-coloured  spots  over  their 
eyes.  Although  the  spots  thus  sometimes  differ  in  colour,  they 
strongly  tend  to  be  tan-coloured ;  this  is  proved  by  my  having  seen 
four  spaniels,  a  setter,  two  Yorkshire  shepherd  dogs,  a  lai'ge 
mongrel,  and  some  fox-hounds,  coloured  black  and  white,  with  not 
a  trace  of  tan-colour,  excepting  the  spots  over  the  eyes,  and  some- 
times a  little  on  the  feet.  These  latter  cases,  and  many  others, 
show  plainly  that  the  colour  of  the  feet  and  the  eye-spots  are  in 
some  way  correlated.  I  have  noticed,  in  various  breeds,  every 
gradation,  from  the  whole  face  being  tan-coloured,  to  a  complete 
ring  round  the  eyes,  to  a  minute  spot  over  the  inner  and  upper 
corners.  The  spots  occur  in  various  sub-breeds  of  terriers  and 
spaniels;  in  setters;  in  hounds  of  various  kinds,  including  the 
turnspit-like  German  badger-hound ;  in  shepherd  dogs ;  in  a 
mongrel,  of  which  neither  parent  had  the  spots;  in  one  pure  bull- 
dog, though  the  spots  were  in  this  case  almost  white  ;  and  in  grey- 
hounds,— but  true  black-and-tan  greyhounds  are  excessively  rare ; 
nevertheless  I  have  been  assured  by  Mr.  Warwick,  that  one  ran  at 
the  Caledonian  Champion  meeting  of  April  1860,  and  was  "  marked 
precisely  like  a  black-and-tan  terrier."  This  dog,  or  another  exactly 
the  same  colour,  ran  at  the  Scottish  National  Club  on  the  21st  of 
March,  1865 ;  and  I  hear  from  Mr.  C.  M.  Browne,  that  "  there  was 
no  reason  either  on  the  sire  or  dam  side  for  the  appearance  of  this 
unasual  colour."  Mr.  Swinhoe  at  my  request  looked  at  the  dogs  in 
China,  at  Amoy,  and  he  soon  noticed  a  brown  dog  with  yellow 
spots  over  the  eyes.  Colonel  H.  Smith  ^°  figures  the  magnificent 
black  mastiff  of  Thibet  with  a  tan-coloured  stripe  over  the  eyes, 
feet,  and  chaps;  and  what  is  more  singular,  he  figures  the  Alco,  or 
native  domestic  dog  of  Mexico,  as  black  and  white,  with  nariow 
Ian-coloured  rings  round  the  eyes;  at  the  Exhibition  of  dogs  in 
London,  May  1863,  a  so-called  forest  dog  from  Korth-West  Mexico 
was  shown,  which  had  pale  tan-coloured  spots  over  the  eyes.  The 
occurrence  of  these  tan-coloured  spots  in  dogs  of  such  extremely 


40  '  The  Naturalist  Library,'  Dogs,  vol.  x.  pp.  4, 19. 


30  DOGS.  Chai'.  L 

different  breeds,  living  in  various  parts  of  the  "svorld,  makes  the  fact 
highly  remarkable. 

We  shall  hereafter  see,  especially  in  the  chapter  on  Pigeons,  that 
coloured  marks  are  strongly  inherited,  and  that  they  often  aid  ns 
in  discovering  the  primitive  forms  of  our  domestic  races.  Hence, 
if  any  wild  canine  species  had  distinctly  exhibited  the  tan-coloured 
B])ots  over  the  eyes,  it  might  have  been  argued  that  this  was  the 
parent-form  of  nearly  all  our  domestic  races.  But  after  looldng  at 
many  coloured  plates,  and  through  the  whole  collection  of  skins  In 
the  British  Museum,  I  can  find  no  species  thus  marked.  It  is  no 
doubt  possible  that  some  extinct  species  was  thus  coloured.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  looking  at  the  various  species,  there  seems  to  be 
a  tolerably  plain  correlation  between  tan-coloured  legs  and  face ; 
and  less  frequently  between  black  legs  and  a  black  face  ;  and  this 
general  rule  of  colouring  explains  to  a  certain  extent  the  above- 
given  cases  of  correlation  between  the  eye-spots  and  the  colour  of 
the  feet.  Moreover,  some  jackals  and  foxes  have  a  trace  of  a  white 
ring  round  their  eyes,  as  in  C.  mesomelas,  C.  aureus,  and  (judging 
from  Colonel  H.  Smith's  dravving)  in  (\  alopex,  and  C.  thaleb. 
Other  species  have  a  trace  of  a  black  line  over  the  corners  of  the 
eyes,  as  in  0.  variegating,  cinereo-varief/atus,  and  fulvua.  a,nd  the  wild 
Dingo.  Hence  I  am  inclined  to  conclude  that  a  tendency  for  tan- 
coloured  spots  to  appear  over  the  eyes  in  the  various  breeds  of 
dogs,  is  analogous  to  the  case  observed  by  Desmarest,  namely,  that 
when  any  wdiite  appears  on  a  dog  the  tip  of  the  tail  is  always  white, 
"de  maniere  a  rappeler  la  tache  terminale  de  meme  couleur,  qui 
caracterise  la  plupart  des  Canides  sauvages."'*^  This  rule,  however, 
as  I  am  assured  by  Mr.  Jesse,  does  not  invariably  hold  good. 

It  has  been  objected  that  onr  domestic  dogs  cannot  be 
descended  from  wolves  or  jackals,  because  their  periods  of 
gestation  are  different.  The  supposed  difference  rests  on 
statements  made  by  Buffon,  Gilibert,  Bechstein,  and  others ; 
but  these  are  now  known  to  be  erroneous  ;  and  the  period  is 
found  to  agree  in  the  wolf,  jackal,  and  dog,  as  closely  as  could 
be  expected,  for  it  is  often  in  some  degree  variable.'*^     Tessier, 

**  Quoted  by  Prof.  Gervais,  '  Hist.  three  days,  for  she  received  the  dog 

Nat.  Mamm.,'  torn.  ii.  p.  66.  more    than   once.      The    period    of   a 

^2  J.  Hunter  shows  that  the  long  mongrel  dog  and  jaclval  was  Hfty-uine 

period  of  seventy-three  days  given  by  days.      Fred.  Cuvier  found  the  period 

Buffon  is  eisily  explained  by  the  bitch  of  gestation  of  the  wolf  to  be  ('  Diet, 

having  received  the  dog  many  times  Class.  d'Hist.  Nat.'  tom.  iv.  p.  8)  two 

during  a  period  of  sixteen  days  ('  Phil.  months  and  a  few  daj's,  which  agrees 

Transact.,'    1787,   p.   353).      Hunter  with  the   dog.      Isid.  G.   St.-Hi!aire, 

found  that  the  gestation  of  a  mongrel  who  has  discussed  the  whole  subject, 

from  \?(ilf  and  dog  (' Phil.  Transact.,'  and   from   whom   I  quote   Belliugeri^ 

I7fi9,  p.   160)  apparently  was   sixty-  states  ('Hist.  Nat,  Gen,'  tniii.  ill.  p 


Chap.  I.  THEIR   PAEENTAGE.  31 

who  has  closely  attended  to  this  subject,  allows  a  difference 
of  four  days  in  the  gestation  of  the  dog.  The  Eev.  W.  D. 
Fox  has  given  me  three  carefully  recorded  cases  of  retrievers, 
in  which  the  bitch  was  put  only  once  to  the  dog ;  and  not 
counting  this  day,  but  counting  that  of  parturition,  the 
periods  were  fifty-nine,  sixty-two,  and  sixty-seven  days.  The 
average  period  is  sixty-three  days ;  but  Bellingeri  states  tliat 
til  is  applies  only  to  large  dogs;  and  that  for  small  races  it 
is  from  sixty  to  sixty- three  days  ;  Mr.  Eyton  of  Eyton,  who 
has  had  much  experience  with  dogs,  also  informs  me  tliat 
the  time  is  apt  to  be  longer  with  large  than  with  small 
dogs. 

F.  Cuvier  has  objected  that  the  jackal  would  not  have  been 
domesticated  on  account  of  its  offensive  smell ;  but  savages  are 
not  sensitive  in  this  respect.  The  degree  of  odour,  also,  differs 
in  the  different  kinds  of  jackal  f^  and  Colonel  H.  Smith  makes 
a  sectional  division  of  the  group  with  one  character  dependent 
on  not  being  offensive.  On  the  other  hand,  dogs — for  instance, 
rough  and  smooth  terriers — differ  much  in  this  respect ;  and 
M.  Godron  states  that  the  hairless  so-called  Turkish  dog;  is 
more  odoriferous  than  other  dogs.  Isidore  Geoffrey  *^  gave  to 
a  dog  the  same  odour  as  that  from  a  jackal  by  feeding  it  on  raw 
flesh. 

'ilie  belief  that  our  dogs  are  descended  from  wolves,  jackals, 
South  American  Canidas,  and  other  species,  suggests  a  far  more 
important  difficulty.  These  animals  in  their  undomesticated 
state,  judging  from  a  widely-spread  analogy,  would  have  been 
in  some  degree  sterile  if  intercrossed  ;  and  such  sterility  will 
be  admitted  as  almost  certain  by  all  those  who  believe  that 
the  lessened  fertility  of  crossed  forms  is  an  infallible  criterion 
of  specific  distinctness.  Anyhow  these  animals  keep  distinct 
in  the  countries  which  they  inhabit  in  common.  On  the 
oilier  hand,  all  domestic  dogs,  which  are  here  supposed  to 
be  descended  from  several  distinct  species,   are,  as  far  as  is 


112)  that  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  'Hist.  Nat.  Gen.,'  tom.  iii.  p.  112,  ou 

the    period    of  the   jackal    has    been  the  odour  of  jackals.   Col.  Ham.  Smilh, 

found  to  be  fi'om  sixty  to  sixty-three  m  '  Nat.  Lib.,'  vol.  x.  p.  289. 
lays,  exactly  as  with  the  dog.  **  Quoted  by  Quatrefagcs  in  '  BalL 

"  See    Isid.    Geoftroy    St.-Hilaire,  Soc.  d'Acclimat.,'  May  11th,  1863. 


32  "DOGS.  OiiAP.  I. 

known,  mutually  fertile  togetlier.  But,  as  Broca  has  well 
remarked,*^  the  fertility  of  successive  generations  of  mongrel 
dogs  has  never  been  scrutinised  with  that  care  Avhich  id 
thought  indispensable  when  species  are  crossed.  The  few 
facts  leading  to  the  conclusion  that  the  sexual  feelings  and 
reproductive  powers  differ  in  the  several  races  of  the  dog 
when  crossed  are  (passing  over  mere  size  as  rendering  pro- 
pagation difficult)  as  follows  :  the  Mexican  Alco  '^^  apj^arently 
dislikes  dogs  of  other  kinds,  but  this  perhaps  is  not  strictly  a 
sexual  feeling ;  the  hairless  endemic  dog  of  Paraguay,  ac- 
cording to  Eengger,  mixes  less  with  the  European  races  than 
these  do  with  each  other ;  the  Spitz  dog  in  Germany  is  said 
to  receive  the  fox  more  readily  than  do  other  breeds  ;  and  Dr. 
Hodgkin  states  that  a  female  Dingo  in  England  attracted  the 
male  wild  foxes.  If  these  latter  statements  can  be  trusted, 
they  prove  some  degree  of  sexual  difference  in  the  breeds  of 
the  dog.  But  the  fact  remains  that  our  domestic  dogs, 
differing  so  widely  as  they  do  in  external  structure,  are  fjir 
more  fertile  together  than  we  have  reason  to  believe  their 
supposed  wild  parents  would  have  been,  Pallas  as^umes  *'^ 
that  a  long  course  of  domestication  eliminates  that  sterility 
which  the  parent-species  would  have  exhibited  if  only  lately 
captured  ;  no  distinct  facts  are  recorded  in  support  of  this 
hypothesis  ;  but  the  evidence  seems  to  mo  so  strong  (indepen- 
dently of  the  evidence  derived  from  other  domesticated 
animals)  in  favour  of  our  domestic  dogs  having  descended  from 
.several  wild  stocks,  that  I  am  inclined  to  admit  the  truth  of 
this  hypothesis. 

There  is  another  and  closely  allied  difficulty  consequent  on 
the  doctrine  of  the  descent  of  our  domestic  dogs  from  several 
wild  species,  namely,  that  they  do  not  seem  to  be  perfectly 
fertile  with  their  supposed  parents.  But  the  experiment  has 
not  been  quite  fairly  tried ;  the  Hungarian  dog,  for  instance, 

*^  'Journal  de  Id  Physiologie,' torn.  '  Naturgesch.     Deutschlands,'     1801, 

li.  p.  385.  B.    i.  s.    638.     With    respect  to   Dr. 

*''  See  Mr.  R.   Hill's  excellent   ac-  Hodgkin's     statement     made     befcrf 

count      of    this     breed     in     Gosse's  Brit.  Assoc,  see  '  The  Zoologist,'  voL 

'Jamaica,' p.  338;   Rengger's  '  Sau^e-  iv.,  for  \845-4r6,  p.  1097. 
thiere  vou  Paraguay,' s.   153.     With  "  'Acta   Acad.    St.    Petersburg;!), 

respeci;  to  Spitz  dogs,  sf-e  Bechstein'o  1780,  part  ii.  pp.  84,  100. 


Chap.  I.  THEIK   PAEENTAGE.  33 

which,  in  external  appearance  so  closely  resembles  the  Euro- 
pean wolf,  ought  to  be  crossed  with  this  wolf:  and  the 
pariah  dogs  of  India  with  Indian  wolves  and  jackals  ;  and  so 
in  other  cases.  That  the  sterility  is  very  slight  between 
certain  dogs  and  wolves  and  other  Canidae  is  shown  by 
savages  taking  the  trouble  to  cross  them.  Buifon  got  four 
successive  generations  from  the  wolf  and  dog,  and  the 
mongrels  were  perfectly  fertile  together.*^  But  more  lately 
M.  Flourens  states  positively  as  the  result  of  his  numerous 
experiments  that  hybrids  from  the  wolf  and  dog,  crossed 
inter  se,  become  sterile  at  the  third  generation,  and  those 
from  the  jackal  and  dog  at  the  fourth  generation.*^  But 
these  animals  were  closely  confined ;  and  many  wild  animals, 
as  we  shall  see  in  a  future  chapter,  are  rendered  by  confine- 
ment in  some  degree  or  even  utterly  sterile.  The  Dingo, 
which  breeds  freely  in  Australia  with  our  imj)orted  dogs, 
would  not  breed  though  repeatedly  crossed  in  the  Jardin  des 
Plantes.^°  Some  hounds  from  Central  Africa,  brought  home 
by  Major  Denham,  never  bred  in  the  Tower  of  London  ;^i 
and  a  similar  tendency  to  sterility  might  be  transmitted  to 
the  hybrid  offspring  of  a  wild  animal.  Moreover,  it  appears 
that  in  M.  Flourens'  experiments  the  hybrids  were  closely 
bred  in  and  in  for  three  or  four  generations ;  and  this  cir- 
cumstance, would  most  certainly  increase  the  tendency  to 
sterility.  Several  years  ago  I  saw  confined  in  the  Zoological 
Gardens  of  London  a  female  hybrid  from  an  English  dog 
and  jackal,  which  even  in  this  the  first  generation  was  so 
sterile  that,  as  I  was  assured  by  her  keeper,  she  did  not  fully 

48  M.  Broca  has  shown  ('  Journal  well-known.  See  also  Isid.  Geoffroy 
de  Physiologie,'  torn.  li.  p.  353)  that  St.-Hilaire, '  Hist.  Nat.  Gen.,'  torn.  iii. 
Buffon's  expenments  have  been  often  p.  217,  who  speaks  of  the  hybrid  off- 
misrepresented.  Broca  has  collected  spring  of  the  jackal  as  perfectly  fer- 
(pp.  390-395)  many  facts  on  the  tile  for  three  generations, 
fertility  of  crossed  dogs,  wolves,  and  so  (3n  authority  of  F.  Cuvier, 
jackals.  quoted  in  Broun's  '  Geschichte  der 

49 '  De  la  Longevite  Humaine,'  par  Natur,'  B.  ii.  s.  164. 

M.  Flourens,  185^5,  p.  143.    Mr.  Bly  th  5i  W.  C.  L.  Martin, '  History  of  the 

says  ('  Indian  Sporting  Review,'  voL  Dog,'  1845,  p.  203.     Mr.  Philip  P. 

ii.  p.  137)  that  he  has  seen  in  India  King,  after   ample   opportunities  of 

several  hybrids  from  the  pariah-dog  observation,   informs    me    that    the 

and  jackal ;  and  between  one  of  these  Dingo  and  European  dogs  often  cross 

hybrids  and  a  terrier.     The  experi-  in  Australia, 
ments  of  Hunter  on  the  jackal  are 
4 


34  DOGS.  Chap.  I. 

exhibit  lier  proper  periods ;  but  this  case  was  certainly 
exceptional,  as  numerous  instances  have  occurred  of  fertile 
hybrids  from  these  two  animals.  In  almost  all  experiments 
on  the  crossing  of  animals  there  are  so  many  causes  of  doubt, 
tJiat  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  come  to  any  positive  con- 
clusion. It  would,  however,  appear,  that  those  who  believe 
that  our  dogs  are  descended  from  several  species  will  havt> 
ncit  only  to  admit  that  their  offspring  after  a  long  course  of 
domestication  generally  lose  all  tendency  to  sterility  when 
crossed  together ;  but  that  between  certain  breeds  of  dogs  and 
some  of  their  supposed  aboriginal  parents  a  certain  degree  of 
sterility  has  been  retained  or  possibly  even  acquired. 

Notwithstanding  the  difficulties  in  regard  to  fertility 
given  in  the  last  two  paragraphs,  when  we  reflect  on  the 
inherent  improbability  of  man  having  domesticated  through- 
out the  world  one  single  species  alone  of  so  widely  distributed, 
so  easily  tamed,  and  so  useful  a  group  as  the  Canidae ;  when 
we  reflect  on  the  extreme  antiquity  of  the  different  breeds ; 
and  especially  when  we  reflect  on  the  close  similarity,  both 
in  external  structure  and  habits,  between  the  domestic  dogs 
of  various  countries  and  the  wild  species  still  inhabiting 
these  same  countries,  the  balanceiof  evidence  is  strongly  in 
favour  of  the  multiple  origin  of  our  dogs. 

Differences  between  the  several  Breeds  of  the  Dog. — If  the 
several  breeds  have  descended  from  several  wild  stocl^'S,  their 
difference  can  obviously  in  part  be  explained  by  that  of  their 
parent  species.  For  instance,  the  form  of  the  greyhound 
may  be  partly  accounted  for  by  descent  from  some  such 
animal  as  the  slim  Abyssinian  Canis  simensis,^^  with  its 
elongated  muzzle ;  that  of  the  larger  dogs  from  the  larger 
wolves,  and  the  smaller  and  slighter  dogs  from  the  jackals : 
and  thus  perhaps  we  may  account  for  certain  constitutional 
and  climatal  differences.  But  it  would  be  a  great  error 
to  suppose  that  there  has   not  been  in  addition  ^^   a   large 

52  Riippel, '  Neue  Wirbelthiere  von  Museum. 
Abyssinieii,'  1835-40  ;  '  Mammif.,'  s.  53  Even   Pallas   admits   this  ;    see 

39,   pi.   xiv.      There  is   a  specimen  'Act.  Acad.  St.  Fetersburgh,'  1780, 

of  this  fine  animal  in  the  British  p.  93. 


Chap.  I.  THEIR   PARENTAGE.  35 

amount  of  variation.  The  intercrossing  of  the  several 
aboriginal  wild  stocks,  and  of  the  subsequently  formed  races, 
has  probably  increased  the  total  number  of  breeds,  and,  as 
we  shall  presently  see,  has  greatly  modified  some  of  them. 
But  we  cannot  explain  by  crossing  the  origin  of  such  extreme 
forms  as  thoroughbred  greyhounds,  bloodhounds,  bulldogs, 
Blenheim  spaniels,  terriers,  pugs,  &c.,  unless  we  believe  that 
forms  equally  or  more  strongly  characterised  in  these  different 
respects  once  existed  in  nature.  But  hardly  any  one  has 
been  bold  enough  to  supjoose  that  such  unnatural  forms  ever 
did  or  could  exist  in  a  wild  state.  When  compared  with  all 
known  members  of  the  famil}^  of  Canidae  they  betray  a 
distinct  and  abnormal  origin.  No  instance  is  on  record  of 
such  dogs  as  bloodhounds,  spaniels,  true  gre^^hounds  having 
been  kept  by  savages  :  they  are  the  product  of  long- continued 
civilization. 

The  number  of  breeds  and  sub-breeds  of  the  dog  is  great ;  Youatt 
for  instance,  describes  twelve  kinds  of  greyhounds.  I  will  not 
attempt  to  enumerate  or  describe  the  varieties,  for  we  cannot  dis- 
criminate how  much  of  their  difference  is  due  to  variation,  and 
how  much  to  descent  from  different  aboriginal  stocks.  But  it  may 
be  worth  while  briefly  to  mention  some  points.  Commencing  with 
the  skull,  Cuvier  has  admitted ^^  that  in  form  the  differences  are 
"plus  fortes  que  celles  d'aucunes  especes  sauvages  d'un  meme 
genre  naturel."  The  proportions  of  the  different  bones ;  the  curva- 
ture of  the  lower  jaw,  the  position  of  the  condyles  with  respect  to 
the  plane  of  the  teeth  (on  which  ¥,  Cuvier  founded  his  classification), 
and  in  mastiffs  the  shape  of  its  posterior  branch ;  the  shape  of  the 
zygomatic  arch,  and  of  the  temporal  fossss;  the  position  of  the 
occiput— all  vary  considerably .^°  The  difference  in  size  between 
the  brains  of  dogs  belonging  to  large  and  small  breeds  "  is  some- 
thing prodigious"  "Some  dogs'  brains  are  high  and  rounded, 
while  others  are  low,  long,  and  narrow  in  front."  In  ihe  latter, 
"the  olfactory  lobes  are  visible  for  about  half  then  extent,  when 
the  brain  is  seen  from  above,  but  they  are  wholly  concealed  by  the 
hemispheres  in  other  breeds."  ^^  The  dog  has  properly  six  pairs  of 
molar  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  seven  in  the  lower ;  but  several 


'*  Quoted    by    I.    Geoffroy,    *  Hist.  observations     on    the   degeneracy  of 

Nat.  Gen.,'  torn.  iii.  p.  453.  the  skull   in  certain  breeds,  by  Prof. 

*^  F.    Cuvier,     in      *  Annales     du  Bianconi,  '  La  Theorie  Darwin ienne,* 

Museum,' torn,  xviii.  p.  337  :  Godron,  1874,  p.  279. 

*  De  I'Espece,'  torn.    i.    p.   342 ;    and  ^^  Dr.    Burt     Vv'^ilder,     *  AmerJcau 

Col.    H.    Smith,    in    'Nat.    Library,'  Assoc.  Advancement  of  Science,' 1873, 

vol.     ix.     p.     101.       See     also    some  pp.  236,  239. 


36  DOGS.  Chap.  I. 

naturalists  have  seen  not  rarely  an  additional  pair  in  the  upper 
jaw;^^  and  Professor  Gervais  says  that  there  are  dogs  "qui  ont 
sept  paires  de  dents  superieures  et  huit  inferieures."  De  Blain- 
ville^^  has  given  full  particulars  on  the  frequency  of  these  deviations 
in  the  number  of  the  teeth,  and  has  shown  that  it  is  not  always  the 
same  tooth  which  is  supernumerary.  In  short-muzzled  races, 
according  to  H.  Midler/^  the  molar  teeth  stand  obliquely,  wiiilst 
in  long-muzzled  races  they  are  placed  longitudinally,  with  open 
spaces  between  them.  The  naked,  so-called  Egyptian  or  Turkish 
dog  is  extremely  deficient  in  its  teeth,*^" — sometimes  having  none 
except  one  molar  on  each  side;  but  this,  though  characteristic  of 
the  breed,  must  be  considered  as  a  monstrosity.  M.  Girard,*^^  who 
seems  to  have  attended  closely  to  the  subject,  says  that  the  period 
of  the  appearance  of  the  permanent  teeth  differs  in  different  dogs, 
being  earlier  in  large  dogs;  thus  the  mastiff  assumes  its  adult  teeth 
in  four  or  five  mouths,  whilst  in  the  spaniel  the  period  is  sometimes 
more  than  seven  or  eight  months.  On  the  other  hand  small  dogs 
are  mature,  and  the  females  have  arrived  at  the  best  age  for 
breeding,  when  one  year  old,  whereas  large  dogs  "  are  still  in  their 
puppy  hood  at  this  time,  and  take  fully  twice  as  long  to  develop 
their  proportions."  ^^ 

With  respect  to  minor  differences  little  need  be  said.  Isidore 
Geoffrey  has  shown  ^^  that  in  size  some  dogs  are  six  times  as  long 
(the  tail  being  excluded)  as  others ;  and  that  the  height  relatively 
to  the  length  of  the  body  varies  from  between  one  to  two,  and  one 
to  nearly  four.  In  the  Scotch  deer-hound  there  is  a  striking  and 
remarkable  difference  in  the  size  of  the  male  and  female.^^  Every 
one  knows  how  the  ears  vary  in  size  in  different  breeds,  and  with 
their  great  development  their  muscles  become  atrophied.  Certain 
breeds  of  dogs  are  described  as  having  a  deep  furrow  between  the 
nostrils  and  lips.  The  caudal  vertebrae,  according  to  F.  Cuvier, 
on  whose  authority  the  two  last  statements  rest,  vary  in  number ; 
and  the  tail  in  English  cattle  and  some  shepherd  dogs  is  almost 
absent.  The  mammae  vary  from  seven  to  ten  in  number;  Dauben- 
ton,  having  examined  twenty-one  dogs,  found  eight  with  five 
mammae  on  each  side;  eight  with  four  on  each  side;  aLd  the  others 


"  Isid.      Geoffroy      Saint-Hilaire,  these  dogs,  which  had  only  a  single 

'Hist,  des  Anomalies,'  1832,  torn.  i.  molar  on  each  side  and  some  imper- 

p.    660,    Gervais,    '  Hist.     Nat.     des  feet  incisors. 

Mammiferes,'tom.  ii.,1855,  p.  66.    De  ^i  Q-jQ^ed    in    'The    Veterinary,' 

Blainville   (' Osteographie,  Canidte,'  London,  vol.  viii.  p.  415. 

p.  137)  has  also  seen  an  extra  molar  ^2  Xhis  is  quoted  from  Stonehenge, 

on  both  sides,  a  great  authority,  '  The  Dog,'  18^7, 

68  '  Osteographie,  Canidse,'  p.  137.  p.  187. 

59  Wurzburt;'er,    '  Medecin.     Zeit-  ^^ '  Hist.  JSTat.  General,'  torn.  iii.  p. 
schrift,'  1860,  B.  i.  s.  265.  448. 

60  Mr.   Yarrell,  in'Proc.   Zoolog.  ^4  w.  Scrope, '  Art  of  Deer-Stalk- 
Soc.,'   Oct.   8th,  1833.     Mr.   Water-  ing,'  p.  354. 

house  showed  me  a  skull  of  one  of 


Chap.  I.  THEIR   PARENTAGE.  37 

with  an  unequal  number  on  the  two  sides.^^  Dogs  have  properly 
five  toes  in  front  and  four  behind,  but  a  fifth  toe  is  often  added ; 
and  F.  Cuvier  states  that,  when  a  fifth  toe  is  present,  a  fourth 
cuneiform  bone  is  developed ;  and,  in  this  case,  sometimes  the  great 
cuneiform  bone  is  raised,  and  gives  on  its  inner  side  a  large  arti- 
cular surface  to  the  astragahis ;  so  that  even  the  relative  connection 
of  the  bones,  the  most  constant  of  all  characters,  varies.  These 
modifications,  however,  in  the  feet  of  dogs  are  not  important, 
because  they  ought  to  be  ranked,  as  De  Blainville  has  shown,''''  as 
monstrosities.  Nevertheless  they  are  interesting  from  being  corre- 
lated with  the  size  of  the  body,  for  they  occur  much  more  frequently 
"with  mastiffs  and  other  large  breeds  than  with  small  dogs.  Closely 
allied  varieties,  however,  sometimes  differ  in  this  respect;  thus 
Mr.  Hodgson  states  that  the  black- and-tan  Lassa  variety  of  the 
Thibet  mastiff  has  the  fifth  digit,  whilst  the  Mustang  sub-variety 
is  not  thus  characterised.  The  extent  to  which  the  skin  is  developed 
between  the  toes  varies  much ;  but  we  shall  return  to  this  point. 
The  degree  to  wdiich  the  various  breeds  differ  in  the  perfection  of 
their  senses,  dispositions,  and  inherited  habits  is  notorious  to  every 
one.  The  breeds  present  some  constitutional  differences :  the  pulse, 
says  Youatt,"^  "  varies  materially  according  to  the  breed,  as  well  as 
to  the  size  of  the  animal."  Different  breeds  of  dogs  are  subject 
in  different  degrees  to  various  diseases.  They  certainly  become 
adapted  to  different  climates  under  which  they  have  long  existed. 
It  is  notorious  that  most  of  our  best  European  breeds  deteriorate 
in  India. ''^  The  Eev  E.  Everest"^  believes  that  no  one  has  succeeded 
in  keeping  the  Newfoundland  dog  long  alive  in  India ;  so  it  is, 
according  to  Lichtenstein,''''  even  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The 
Thibet  mastiff  degenerates  on  the  plains  of  India,  and  can  live  only 
on  the  mountains.''^  Lloyd ''^  asserts  that  our  bloodhounds  and 
bulldogs  have  been  tried,  and  cannot  withstand  the  coJd  of  the 
northern  European  forests. 

Seeing  in  how  many  characters  the  races  of  the  dog  differ 

^^  Quoted  by  Col.  Ham.  Smith  in  chocele.      The  liability  to  distemper 

*Nat.  Lib.,'  vol.  x.  p.  79.  (p.  232)  is  extremely  different  in  dif- 

^•^  De     Blainville,     '  Osteographie,  ferent  breeds.     On  the  distemper,  see 

Canidje,'  p.  134.    F.  Cuvier,  'Annales  also  Col.  Hutchinson  on  'Dog  Break- 

du  Museum.'  tom.   xviii.  p.  342.     In  ing,'  1850,  p.  279. 
regard  to  mastiffs,  see  Col.  H.  Smith,  "^^  See  Youatt  on  the  Dog,  p.   15* 

'Nat.   Lib.'   vol.  x.  p.  218.    For   the  ' The  Veterinary,' London,  vol.  xi.  p. 

Thibet    mastiff,  see  Mr.   Hodgson   in  235. 

'Journal  of  As.  Soc.  of  Bengal,' vol.  i.,  ^^  'Journal  of  As.  Soc.  of  Bengal,' 

1832,  p.  342.  vol.  iii.  p.  19. 

«'  '  The  Dog,'  1845,  p.  186.     With  '<>  '  Travels,'  vol.  ii.  p.  15. 

respect  to  diseases,  Youatt  asserts  (p.  ^^  Hodgson,  in  'Journal  of  As.  Soc. 

167)  that  the   Italian   greyhound   is  of  Bengal,' vol.  i.  p.  342. 
"strongly  subject  "  to  polypi  in  the  ^*  'Field   Sports  of  the  Nortli  or 

inatrii  or  vagina.     The  spaniel   and  Europe,'  vol   ii.  p.  165. 
img  (p.  182)  are  most  liable  to  bron- 


38  DOGS.  Chap.  I. 

from  eacli  other,  and  remembering  Cuvier's  admission  that 
their  skulls  differ  more  than  do  those  of  the  species  of  any 
natural  genus,  and  bearing  in  mind  how  closely  the  bones  of 
wolves,  jackals,  foxes,  and  other  Canidas  agree,  it  is  remark- 
able that  we  meet  with  the  statement,  repeated  over  and 
over  again,  that  the  races  of  the  dog  differ  in  no  important 
characters.  A  highly  competent  judge,  Prof.  Gervais,''^ 
admits  "  si  Ton  prenait  sans  controle  les  alterations  dont 
chacun  de  ces  organes  est  susceptible,  on  pourrait  croire  qu'il 
y  a  entre  les  chiens  domestiques  des  differences  plus  grandes 
que  eeHes  qui  separent  ailleurs  les  especes,  quelquefois  nieme 
les  genres."  Some  of  the  differences  above  enumerated  are 
in  one  respect  of  comparatively  little  value,  for  they  are  not 
characteristic  of  distinct  breeds  :  no  one  pretends  that  such 
is  the  case  with  the  additional  molar  teeth  or  with  the  number 
of  mammse ;  the  additional  digit  is  generally  present  with 
mastiffs,  and  some  of  the  more  important  differences  in  the 
skull  and  lower  jaw  are  more  or  less  characteristic  of  various 
breeds.  But  we  must  not  forget  that  the  predominant  power 
of  selection  has  not  been  applied  in  any  of  these  cases ;  we 
have  variability  in  important  parts,  but  the  differences  have 
not  been  fixed  by  selection.  Man  cares  for  the  form  and 
fleetne-s  of  his  greyhound^^,  for  the  size  of  his  mastiffs,  and 
formerly  for  the  strength  of  the  jaw  in  his  bulldogs,  &c. ; 
but  he  cares  nothing  about  the  number  of  their  molar  teeth 
or  mammse  or  digits ;  nor  do  we  know  that  differences  in 
these  organs  are  correlated  with,  or  owe  their  development 
to,  differences  in  other  parts  of  the  body  about  which  man 
does  care.  Those  who  have  attended  to  the  subject  of 
selection  will  admit  that,  nature  having  given  variability, 
man,  if  he  bo  chose,  could  fix  five  toes  to  the  hinder  feet  of 
certain  breeds  of  dogs,  as  certainly  as  to  the  feet  of  his 
Dorking  fowls :  he  could  probably  fix,  but  with  much  more 
difficulty,  an  additional  pair  of  molar  teeth  in  either  jaw,  in 
the  same  way  as  he  has  given  additional  horns  to  certain 
breeds  of  sheep  ;  if  he  wished  to  produce  a  toothless  breed  of 
dogH,  having  the  so-called  Turkish  dog  with  its  imperfect 

»2  'Hist.  Nat.  des  Mammif.,'  1855,  torn.  ii.  pp.  66,  67. 


Chap  I.  THEIR   PAEENTAGE.  39 

teeth   to   Tvork   on,    he  coukl   probably   do    so,    for   he   Las 
succeeded  in  making  hornless  breeds  of  cattle  and  sheep. 

With  respect  to  the  precise  causes  and  steps  by  which  the 
several  races  of  dogs  have  come  to  differ  so  greatly  from  each 
other,  we  are,  as  in  most  other  cases,  profoundly  ignorant.  We 
may  attribute  part  of  the  difference  in  external  form  and  con- 
stitution to  inheritance  from  distinct  wild  stocks,  that  is  to 
changes  effected  under  nature  before  domestication.  We  must 
attribute  something  to  the  crossing  of  the  several  domestic 
and  natural  races.  I  shall,  however,  soon  recur  to  the  crossing 
of  races.  We  have  already  seen  how  often  savages  cross  their 
dogs  with  wild  native  species  ;  and  Pennant  gives  a  curious 
account  '^'^  of  the  manner  in  which  Fochabers,  in  Scotland,  was 
stocked  "  with  a  multitude  of  curs  of  a  most  wolfish  aspect  " 
from  a  single  hybrid- wolf  brought  into  that  district. 

It  would  appear  that  climate  to  a  certain  extent  directly 
modifies  the  forms  of  dogs.  We  have  lately  seen  that  several 
of  our  English  breeds  cannot  live  in  India,  and  it  is  positively 
asserted  that  when  bred  there  for  a  few  generations  they 
degenerate  not  only  in  their  mental  faculties,  but  in  form. 
Captain  Williamson, '^^  who  carefully  attended  to  this  subject, 
states  that  "  hounds  are  the  most  rapid  in  their  decline ;" 
"greyhounds  and  pointers,  also,  rapidly  decline."  But 
spaniels,  after  eight  or  nine  geneiations,  and  without  a  cross 
from  Europe,  are  as  good  as  their  ancestors.  Dr.  Falconer 
informs  me  that  bulldogs,  which  have  been  known,  when 
first  brought  into  the  country,  to  pin  down  even  an  elephant 
by  its  trunk,  not  only  fall  off  after  two  or  three  generations 
in  pluck  and  ferocity,  but  lose  the  under-hung  character 
of  their  lower  jaws  ;  their  muzzles  become  finer  and  their 
bodies  lighter.  English  dogs  imported  into  India  are  so 
valuable  that  probably  due  care  Las  been  taken  to  prevent 
their  crossing  with  native  dogs  ;  so  that  the  deterioration 
cannot  be  thus  accounted  for.  The  Eev.  E.  Everest  informs 
me  that  he  obtained  a  pair  of  setters,  born  in  India,  which 
perfectly  resembled  their  Scotch  parents :  he  raised  several 
litters    from    them    in    Delhi,    taking    the    most    stringent 

^*  'Historv  of  Quadrupeds,' 1793,  "  'Oriental  Field   Sports,' quoted 

vol.  i.  p.  238'.  by  Youatt,  'The  Dog,'  p.  15. 


40  DOGS.     ^  Chap.  L 

precautions  to  prevent  a  cross,  but  he  never  succeeded,  though 
this  was  only  the  second  generation  in  India,  in  obtaining 
a  single  young  dog  like  its  parents  in  size  or  make ;  their 
nostrils  were  more  contracted,  their  noses  more  pointed,  their 
size  inferior,  and  their  limbs  more  slender.  So  again  on  the 
coast  of  Guinea,  dogs,  according  to  Bosman,  "  alter  strangely; 
their  ears  grow  long  and  stiff  like  those  of  foxes,  to  which 
colour  they  also  incline,  so  that  in  three  or  four  years,  they 
degenerate  into  very  ugly  creatures ;  and  in  thiee  or  four 
broods  their  barking  turns  into  a  howl."  '^^  This  remarkable 
tendency  to  rapid  deterioration  in  Euroj^ean  dogs  subjected 
to  the  climate  of  India  and  Africa,  may  be  largely  accounted 
for  by  reversion  to  a  primordial  condition  which  many  animals 
exhibit,  as  we  shall  hereafter  see,  when  their  constitutions 
are  in  any  way  disturbed. 

Some  of  the  peculiarities  characteristic  of  the  several  breeds 
of  the  dog  have  probably  arisen  suddenly,  and,  though  strictly 
inherited,  may  be  called  monstrosities  ;  for  instance,  the  shape 
of  the  legs  and  body  in  the  turnspit  of  Europe  and  India  ; 
the  shape  of  the  head  and  the  under-hanging  jaw  in  the  bull- 
and  pug-dog,  so  alike  in  this  one  respect  and  so  unlike  in  all 
others.^  A  peculiarity  suddenly  arising,  and  therefore  in  one 
sense  deserving  to  be  called  a  monstrosity,  may,  however,  be 
increased  and  fixed  by  man's  selection.  We  can  hardly  doubt 
that  long-continued  training,  as  with  the  greyhound  in 
coursing  hares,  as  with  water-dogs  in  swimming — and  the 
want  of  exercise,  in  the  case  of  lapdogs — must  have  produced 
some  direct  effect  on  their  structure  and  instincts.  But  we 
shall  immediately  see  that  the  most  potent  cause  of  change 
has  probably  been  the  selection,  both  methodical  and  uncon- 
scious, of  slight  individual  differences, — the  latter  kind  of 
selection  resulting  from  the  occasional  preservation,  during 
hundreds  of  generations,  of  those  individual  dogs  which  were 
the  most  useful  to  man  for  certain  purposes  and  under  certain 
couditions  of  life.  In  a  future  chapter  on  Selection  I  shall 
show  that  even  barbarians  attend  closely  to  the  qualities  of 
their  dogs.    This  unconscious  selection  by  man  would  be  aided 

76  A.  Murray  gives  this  passage  in  his  '  Geographical  Distribution  of  Mam- 
mals,' 4to,  1866,  p.  8. 


Chap.  L  THEIE   PARENTAGE.  41 

by  a  kind  of  natural  selection ;  for  the  dogs  of  savages  have 
partly  to  gain  their  own  subsistence  :  for  instance,  in  Aus- 
tralia, as  we  hear  from  Mr.  Nind,^^  the  dogs  are  sometimes 
compelled  by  want  to  leave  their  masters  and  provide  for 
themselves  ;  but  in  a  few  days  the}^  generally  return.  And 
we  may  infer  that  dogs  of  different  shapes,  sizes,  and  habits, 
■would  have  the  best  chance  of  surviving  under  different 
circumstances, — on  open  sterile  plains,  where  they  have  to 
run  down  their  own  prey, — on  rocky  coasts,  where  they  have 
to  feed  on  crabs  and  fish  left  in  the  tidal  pools,  as  in  the  case 
of  New  Guinea  and  Tierra  del  Fuego.  in  this  latter  country, 
as  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  Bridges,  the  Catechist  to  the  Mission, 
the  dogs  turn  over  the  stones  on  the  shore  to  catch  the  crus- 
taceans which  lie  beneath,  and  they  "  are  clever  enough  to 
knock  off  the  shell-fish  at  a  first  blow ;"  for  if  this  be  not 
done,  shell-fish  are  well  known  to  have  an  almost  invincible 
power  of  adhesion. 

It  has  already  been  remarked  that  dogs  differ  in  the  degree 
to  which  their  feet  are  webbed.  In  dogs  of  the  Newfoundland 
breed,  which  are  eminently  aquatic  in  their  habits,  the  skin, 
according  to  Isidore  Geoffroy,'^'^  extends  to  the  third  phalanges 
whilst  in  ordinary  dogs  it  extends  only  to  the  second.  In 
two  Newfoundland  dogs  which  I  examined,  when  the  toes 
were  stretched  aj)art  and  view-ed  on  the  under  side,  the  skin 
extended  in  a  nearly  straight  line  between  the  outer  margins 
of  the  balls  of  the  toes ;  whereas,  in  two  terriers  of  distinct 
sub-breeds,  the  skin  viewed  in  the  same  manner  was  deeply 
scooped  out.  In  Canada  there  is  a  dog  which  is  peculiar  i'. 
the  country  and  common  there,  and  this  has  "  half-webbed 
feet  and  is  fond  of  the  water."  '^  English  otter-hounds  are 
said  to  have  webbed  feet :  a  friend  examined  for  me  the  feet 
of  two,  in  comparison  w^ith  the  feet  of  some  harriers  and 
bloodhounds ;  he  found  the  skin  variable  in  extent  in  all,  but 
more  developed  in  the  otter-hounds  than  in  the  others.*^°     As 

"  Quoted  by  Mr.  Galton, '  Domes-  vol.  vl,  1883,  p.  511. 

tication  of  xVnimals,'  p.  13.  so  gee  Mr.  C.  O.  Groom-Napier  on 

78  'Hist.  Nat.  Gen.,'  torn,  iii.  p.  450.  the  webbing  of  the  hind  feet  of  Otter- 

7e  Mr.  Greenhow  on  the  Canadian  hounds,  in  'Land  and  Water,'  Oct. 

Dog,  in  Loudon's '  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.,'  13th,  1866,  p.  270. 


42  DOGS.  Chap  I. 

aquatic  animals  which,  belong  to  quite  diiferent  orders  have 
webbed  feet,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  structure  would 
be  serviceable  to  dogs  that  frequent  the  water.  We  may 
confidently  infer  that  no  man  ever  selected  his  water-dogs 
by  the  extent  to  which  the  skin  was  developed  between  their 
toos ;  but  what  he  does,  is  to  preserve  and  breed  from  those 
individuals  which  hunt  best  in  the  water,  or  best  retrieve 
wounded  game,  and  thus  he  unconsciously  selects  dogs  with 
feet  slightly  better  webbed.  The  effects  of  use  from  the 
frequent  stretching  apart  of  the  toes  will  likewise  aid  in  the 
result.  Man  thus  closely  imitates  Natural  Selection.  We 
have  an  excellent  illustration  of  this  same  process  in  North 
America,  where,  according  to  Sir  J.  Richardson,^^  all  the 
wolves,  foxes,  and  aboriginal  domestic  dogs  have  their  feet 
broader  than  in  the  corresponding  species  of  the  Old  World, 
and  "well  calculated  for  running  on  the  snow."  Now,  in 
these  Arctic  regions,  the  life  or  death  of  every  animal  will 
often  depend  on  its  success  in  hunting  over  the  snow  when 
soft ;  and  this  will  in  part  depend  on  the  feet  being  broad ; 
yet  they  must  not  be  so  broad  as  to  interfere  with  the  activity 
of  the  animal  when  the  ground  is  sticky,  or  with  its  power 
of  burrowing  holes,  or  with  other  necessary  habits  of  life. 

As  changes  in  domestic  breeds  which  take  place  so  slowly 
are  not  to  be  noticed  at  any  one  period,  whether  due  to  the 
selection  of  individual  variations  or  of  differences  resulting 
from  crosses,  are  most  important  in  understanding  the  origin 
of  our  domestic  productions,  and  likewise  in  throwing  indirect 
light  on  the  changes  effected  under  nature,  I  will  give  in  detail 
euch  cases  as  I  have  been  able  to  collect.  Lawrence, '^^  who 
paid  particular  attention  to  the  history  of  the  foxhound, 
R^riting  in  1829,  says  that  between  eighty  and  ninety  years 
before  "  an  entirely  new  foxhound  was  raised  through  the 
Oreeder's  art,"  the  ears  of  the  old  southern  hound  being 
reduced,  the  bone  and  bulk  lightened,  the  waist  increased  in 
length,  and  the  stature  somewhat  added  to.  It  is  believed 
that  this  was  effected  b^^  a  cross  with  a  greyhound.     With 

**  'Fauna  Boreali-Americana,'  *^  ' The  Horse  in  all  his  Varieties, 

1829,  p.  62.  &c.,  1829,  pp.  230,  234. 


Chap.  L  THEIR   PARENTAGE.  43 

respect  to  this  latter  dog,  Youatt,^^  who  is  generally  cautiotiH 
in  his  statements,  says  that  the  greyhound  within  the  last 
fifty  years,  that  is  before  the  commencement  of  the  present 
century,  "  assumed  a  somewhat  different  character  from  that 
which  he  once  possessed.  He  is  now  distinguished  by  a 
beautiful  symmetry  of  form,  of  which  he  could  not  once 
boast,  and  he  has  even  superior  speed  to  that  which  he 
formerly  exhibited.  He  is  no  longer  used  to  struggle  with 
deer,  but  contends  with  his  fellows  over  a  shorter  and 
speedier  course."  An  able  writer  ^*  believes  that  our  English 
greyhounds  are  the  descendants,  progressively  improved,  of  the 
large  rough  greyhounds  which  existed  in  Scotland  so  early 
as  the  third  century.  A  cross  at  some  former  period  with 
the  Italian  greyhound  has  been  suspected ;  but  this  seems 
hardly  probable,  considering  the  feebleness  of  this  latter 
breed.  Lord  Orford,  as  is  well  known,  crossed  his  famous 
greyhounds,  which  failed  in  courage,  with  a  bulldog — this 
breed  being  chosen  from  being  erroneously  supposed  to  be 
deficient  in  the  power  of  scent ;  "  after  the  sixth  or  seventh 
generation,"  says  Youatt,  "  there  was  not  a  vestige  left  of 
the  form  of  the  bulldog,  but  his  courage  and  indomitable 
perseverance  remained." 

Youatt  infers,  from  a  comparison  of  an  old  picture  of  King 
Charles's  spaniels  with  the  living  dog,  that  "  the  breed  of  the 
present  day  is  materially  altered  for  the  worse :"  the  muzzle 
has  become  shorter,  the  forehead  more  prominent,  and  the  eyes 
larger ;  the  changes  in  this  case  have  probably  been  due  to 
simple  selection.  The  setter,  as  this  author  remarks  in  another 
place,  "  is  evidently  the  large  spaniel  improved  to  his  present 
peculiar  size  and  beauty,  and  taught  another  way  of  marking 
his  game.  If  the  form  of  the  dog  were  not  sufficiently  satis- 
factory on  this  point,  we  might  have  recourse  to  history : " 
he  then  refers  to  a  document  dated  1685  bearing  on  this 
subject,  and  adds  that  the  pure  Irish  setter  shows  no  signs 
of  a  cross  with  the  pointer,  which  some  authors  suspect 
has  been  the  case  with  the  English  setter.     The  bulldog  is  an 

83  'The   Dog,M8-l:5,  pp.  31,  35;  «^  In    the     'Encyclop.    of    Rural 

with  respect  to  King  Charles's  spaniel,       Sports,'  p.  557. 
p.  45  5  for  the  setter,  p.  90. 


44  DOGS.  Chap.  1 

EDglish  breed,  and  as  I  hear  from  Mr.  G.  R.  Jesse,^^  seems  to 
have  originated  from  the  mastiff  since  the  time  of  Shakspearo ; 
but  certainly  existed  in  1631,  as  shown  by  Prestwick  Eaton's 
letters.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  fancy  bulldogs  of 
the  present  day,  now  that  they  are  not  used  for  bull-baiting, 
have  become  greatly  reduced  in  size,  without  any  express 
intention  on  the  part  of  the  breeder.  Our  pointers  are 
certainly  descended  from  a  Spanish  breed,  as  even  their 
present  names,  Don,  Ponto,  Carlos,  &c.,  show  ;  it  is  said  that 
they  were  not  known  in  England  before  the  Revolution  in 
1688 ;  ^^  but  the  breed  since  its  introduction  has  been  much 
modified,  for  Mr.  Borrow,  who  is  a  sportsman  and  knows 
Spain  intimately  well,  informs  me  that  he  has  not  seen  in 
that  country  any  breed  "  corresponding  in  figure  with  the 
English  pointer ;  but  there  are  genuine  pointers  near  Xeres 
which  have  been  imported  by  English  gentlemen,"  A  nearly 
parallel  case  is  offered  b}^  the  Newfoundland  dog,  which  was 
certainly  brought  into  England  from  that  country,  but  which 
has  since  been  so  much  modifi.ed  that,  as  several  writers  have 
observed,  it  does  not  now  closely  resemble  any  existing  native 
dog  in  Newfoundland.^^ 

These  several  cases  of  slow  and  gradual  changes  in  our 
English  dogs  possess  some  interest ;  for  though  the  changes 
have  generally,  but  not  invariably'',  been  caused  by  one  or 
two  crosses  with  a  distinct  breed,  yet  we  may  feel  sure,  from 
the  well-known  extreme  variability  of  crossed  breeds,  that 
rigorous  and  long-continued  selection  must  have  been  pi-ac- 
tised,  in  order  to  improve  them  in  a  defi.nite  manner.  As 
soon  as  any  strain  or  family  became  slightly  improved  or 
better  adapted  to  alter  circumstances,  it  would  tend  to 
supplant  the  older  and  less  improved  strains.  For  instance, 
as  soon  as  the  old  foxhound  was  improved  by  a  cross  with  the 
greyhound,  or  by  simple  selection,  and  assumed  its  present- 

*'  Author  of  *  Researches  into  the  between    the    Esquimaux  dog  and    a 

History  of  the  British  Dog.  large  French  hound.  See  Dr.  Hodgkin, 

*8  5ee  Col.  Harniiton  Smith  on  the  'Brit.    Assoc.,'    1844;       Bechstein's 

antiquity  of  the  Pointer,  in 'Nat.  Lib.'  'Naturgesch.   Deutschland,'  Band.   i. 

vol.  X.  p.  196.  s.  574 ;  '  Nat.  Lib.,'  vol.  x.  p.  132  ;  also 

^^  The    Newfoundland    dog  is    be-  Mr.  Jukes'  '  Excursiou  iu  and  abou^ 

ievod  to  Lave  origioated  from  a  cross  Newfouadlaad.' 


CHAr.  I.  THE  IE   PARENTAGE.  45 

i3liaracter — and  the  change  was  probably  desired  owing  to 
the  increased  fleetness  of  our  hunters— it  rapidly  spread 
throughout  the  country,  and  is  now  ever3^where  nearly 
uniform.  But  the  process  of  improvement  is  still  going  on 
for  CA'ery  one  tries  to  improve  his  strain  by  occasionally 
procuring  dogs  from  the  best  kennels.  Through  this  process 
of  gradual  substitution  the  old  English  hound  has  been  lost ; 
and  so  it  has  been  with  the  Irish  wolf-dog,  the  old  English 
bulldog,  and  several  other  breeds,  such  as  the  alaunt,  as  I  am 
informed  by  Mr.  Jesse.  But  the  extinction  of  former  breeds 
is  apparently  aided  by  another  cause  ;  for  whenever  a  breed 
is  kept  in  scanty  numbers,  as  at  present  with  the  bloodhound, 
it  is  reared  with  some  difficulty,  apparently  from  the  evil 
effects  of  long-continued  close  interbreeding.  As  several 
breeds  of  the  dog  have  been  slightly  but  sensibly  modified 
within  so  short  a  period  as  the  last  one  or  two  centuries,  by 
the  selection  of  the  best  individuals,  modified  in  many  cases 
by  crosses  with  other  breeds ;  and  as.  we  shall  hereafter  see 
that  the  breeding  of  dogs  was  attended  to  in  ancient  times, 
as  it  still  is  by  savages,  we  may  conclude  that  we  have  in 
selection,  even  if  only  occasionally  practised,  a  potent  means 
of  modification. 

DoMESTJC  Cats. 

Cats  have  been  domesticated  in  the  East  from  an  ancient 
period  ;  Mr.  Blyth  informs  me  that  the}^  are  mentioned  in  a 
Sanskrit  writing  2000  years  old,  and  in  Egypt  their  antiquity 
is  known  to  be  even  greater,  as  shown  by  monumental  draw- 
ings and  their  mummied  bodies.  These  mummies,  according 
to  De  Blainville,^^  who  has  particularly  studied  the  subject, 
belong  to  no  less  than  three  species,  namely,  F.  caligulata, 
huhastes,  and  chaus.  The  two  former  species  are  said  to  bo 
still  found,  both  wild  and  domesticated,  in  parts  of  Egypt. 
F.  caligulata  presents  a  diiference  in  the  first  inferior  milk 
rnolar  tooth,  as  compared  with  the  domestic  cats  of  Europe, 
which  makes  De  Blainville  conclude  that  it  is  not  one  of  the 

88  De  Blainville,  '  Osteographie,  other  mummied  species.  He  quotes 
Felis,'  p.  65,  on  the  charactei*  of  F.  Ehrenburg  on  F.  maniculata  being 
caligulata;  pp.  85,  89,  90,  175,  on  the       mummied. 


46  DOMESTIC   CATS.  Chap,  I 

parent-forms  of  our  cats.  Several  naturalists,  as  Pallas, 
Temminck,  Blyth,  believe  that  domestic  cats  are  the  descend- 
ants of  several  species  commingled  :  it  is  certain  that  cats 
cross  readily  with  various  wild  species,  and  it  wouhl  appear 
that  the  character  of  the  domestic  breeds  has,  at  least  in  sonio 
cases,  been  thus  affected.  Sir  W.  Jardine  has  no  doubt  that, 
"  in  the  north  of  Scotland,  there  has  been  occasional  crossing 
with  our  native  species  {F.  syhestris),  and  that  the  result  of 
the-e  cro-ses  has  been  kept  in  our  houses.  I  have  seen,"  ho 
adds,  "  many  cats  very  closely  resembling  the  wild  cat,  and 
one  or  two  that  could  scarcely  be  distinguished  from  it."  Mr. 
Blyth  ^^  remarks  on  this  passage,  "  but  such  cats  are  never 
seen  in  the  southern  parts  of  England ;  still,  as  compared 
with  any  Indian  tame  cat,  the  affinity  of  the  ordinary  British 
cat  to  F.  syhestris  is  manifest ;  and  due  I  suspect  to  frequent 
intermixture  at  a  time  when  the  tame  cat  was  first  introduced 
into  Britain  and  continued  rare,  while  the  wild  species  was 
far  more  abundant  than  at  present."  In  Hungary,  Jeitteles  ^^ 
was  assured  on  trustworthy  authority  that  a  wild  male  cat 
crossed  with  a  female  domestic  cat,  and  that  the  hybrids  long 
lived  in  a  domesticated  state.  In  Algiers  the  domestic  cat 
has  crossed  with  the  wild  cat  (jP.  hjhica)  of  that  countrj^.^^ 
In  South  Africa  as  Mr.  E.  Layard  informs  me,  the  domestic 
cat  intermingles  freely  with  the  wild  F.  caffra ;  he  has  seen 
a  pair  of  hybrids  which  were  quite  tame  and  particularly 
attached  to  the  lady  who  brought  them  up ;  and  Mr.  Fry  has 
found  that  these  hybrids  are  fertile.  In  India  the  domestic 
cat,  according  to  Mr.  Blyth,  has  crossed  with  four  Indian  species. 
With  respect  to  one  of  these  species,  F.  chaus,  an  excellent 
observer,  Sir  W.  Elliot,  informs  me  that  he  once  killed, 
uear  Madras,  a  wild  brood,  which  were  evidently  hybrids 
from  the  domestic  cat ;  these  young  animals  had  a  thick 
lynx-like  tail  and  the  broad  brown  bar  on  the  inside  of  tlie 
forearm  characteristic  of  F.  cJiaus.     Sir  W.  Elliot  adds  that  he 

•^  Asiatic  Soc.  of  Calcutta  ;   Cura-  thit)  Report  a  very  interesting  discus- 
tor's  Report,  Aug.  1856.    The  passage  sion  on  their  origim. 
from   Sir  W.  Jardine  is  quoted   from  ^^  '  Fauna  Hungarise  Sup.,*   j.862, 
this    Report.      Mr.    Blyth,  who    has  3.  12. 

especially  attended   to  the   wild  and  ^^  Isid.     Geoffrey     Saint  -  Hilaire, 

iomestic  cats  of  India,  has  given  in  *  Hist.  Nat.  Gen.,'  torn.  iii.  p.  177. 


Chap.  I,  THEIR-  VARIATION.  47 

has  often  observed  this  same  mark  on  the  forearms  of  domestic 
cats  in  India.  Mr.  Blyth  states  that  domestic  cats  coloured 
nearly  like  F.  chaus,  but  not  resembling  that  species  in  shape, 
abound  in  Bengal ;  he  adds,  "  such  a  colouration  is  utterly- 
unknown  in  European  cats,  and  the  proper  tabby  markings 
(pale  streaks  on  a  black  ground,  peculiarly  and  symmetrically 
disposed),  so  common  in  English  cats,  are  never  seen  in  tho-^e 
of  India."  Dr.  D.  Short  has  assured  Mr.  Blyth  ^^  that,  at 
Han  si,  hybrids  between  the  common  cat  and  F.  ornata  (or 
torquata)  occur,  "  and  that  many  of  the  domestic  cats  of  that 
part  of  India  were  undistinguishable  from  the  wild  F.  ornataj^ 
Azara  states,  but  only  on  the  authority  of  the  inhabitants, 
that  in  Paraguay  the  cat  has  crossed  with  two  native  species. 
From  these  several  cases  we  see  that  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa, 
and  America,  the  common  cat,  which  lives  a  freer  life  than 
most  other  domesticated  animals,  has  crossed  with  A'arious 
wild  species ;  and  that  in  some  instances  the  crossing  has 
been  sufficiently  frequent  to  affect  the  character  of  the 
breed. 

AVhether  domestic  cats  have  descended  from  several  distinct 
species,  or  have  only  been  modified  by  occasional  crosses,  their 
fertility,  as  far  as  is  known,  is  unimpaired.  The  large  Angora 
or  Persian  cat  is  the  most  distinct  in  structure  and  habits 
of  all  the  domestic  breeds  ;  and  is  believed  by  Pallas,  but  on 
no  distinct  evidence,  to  be  dcKscended  from  the  F.  manul  of 
middle  Asia ;  and  I  am  assured  by  Mr.  Blyth  that  the  Angora 
cat  breeds  freely  with  Indian  cats,  which,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  have  apparently  been  much  crossed  with  F.  chaus.  In 
England  half-bred  Angora  cats  are  perfectly  fertile  with  one 
another. 

Within  the  same  country  we  do  not  meet  with  distinct 
races  of  the  cat,  as  we  do  of  dogs  and  of  most  other  domestio 
animals  ;  though  the  cats  of  the  same  country  present  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  fluctuating  variabilit3^  The  explanation 
obviously  is  that,  from  their  nocturnal  and  rambling  habits, 
judiscriminate  crossing  cannot  without  much  trouble  be  pre- 
vented. Selection  cannot  be  brought  into  play  to  produce 
distinct  breeds,  or  to  keep  those  distinct  which  have  been 
"  'Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,'  1863,  p.  184. 


48  DOMESTIC    CATS.  Chap.  L 

imported  from  foreign  lands.  On  tlie  other  hand,  in  islands 
and  in  countries  completely  separated  from  each  other,  we 
meet  with  breeds  more  or  less  distinct ;  and  these  cases  are 
worth  giving,  showing  that  the  scarcity  of  distinct  races  in 
tlie  same  country  is  not  cau.sed  by  a  deficiency  of  variability 
in  the  animal.  The  tailless  cats  of  the  Isle  of  Man  are  e-aid 
to  differ  from  common  cats  not  only  in  the  w^ant  of  a  tail,  but 
in  the  greater  length  of  their  hind  legs,  in  the  size  of  their 
heads,  and  in  habits.  The  Creole  cat  of  Antigua,  as  I  am 
informed  by  Mr.  Nicholson,  is  smaller,  and  has  a  more  elon- 
gated head,  than  the  British  cat.  In  Ceylon,  hs  Mr.  Thwaites 
writes  to  me,  every  one  at  first  notices  the  different  appear- 
ance of  the  native  cat  from  the  English  animal ;  it  is  of  small 
size,  with,  closely  4ying  hairs  ;  its  head  is  small,  with  a  re- 
ceding forehead  ;  but  the  ears  are  large  and  sharp  ;  altogether 
it  has  what  is  there  called  a  "  low-caste  "  appearance.  Eeng- 
ger  ^^  says  that  the  domestic  cat,  wdiich  has  been  bred  for 
300  years  in  Paraguay,  presents  a  striking  difference  from  the 
European  cat ;  it  is  smaller  by  a  fourth,  has  a  more  lanky 
body,  its  hair  is  short,  shining,  scanty,  and  lies  close,  espe- 
cially on  the  tail :  he  adds  that  the  change  has  been  less  at 
Ascension,  the  capital  of  Paraguay,  owing  to  the  continual 
crossing  with  newdy  imported  cats ;  and  this  fact  well  illus- 
trates the  importance  of  separation.  The  conditions  of  life 
in  Paraguay  appear  not  to  be  highly  favourable  to  the  cat, 
for,  though  the}''  have  run  half-wild,  they  do  not  become 
thoroughly  feral,  like  so  many  other  European  animals.  In 
another  part  of  South  America,  according  to  Roulin,^^  the 
introduced  cat  has  lost  the  habit  of  uttering  its  hideous 
nocturnal  howl.  The  Eev.  W.  D.  Fox  purchased  a  cat  in 
Portsmouth,  wdiich  he  was  told  came  from  the  coast  of 
Guinea ;  its  skin  was  black  and  wrinkled,  fur  bluish-grey 
and  short,  its  ears  rather  bare,  legs  long,  and  whole  aspect 
peculiar.  This  "  negro  "  cat  was  fertile  with  common  cats. 
On  the  opposite  coa^t  of  Africa,  at  Mombas,  Captain  Owen, 


93 '  Sauo'etliiere     von     Paraguay,'       S  a  vans :  Acad.   Eoy.  des   Sciences,' 
1830,  s.  212.  torn.  vi.  p.  346.    Gomara  first  noticed 

94  '  Mem.     presentes    par    divers       this  fact  in  1554. 


Chap.  I  THEIR  VARIATIOK  49 

K.N.,^^  states  that  all  the  cats  are  covered  with  short  stiff 
hair  instead  of  fur  :  he  gives  a  curious  account  of  a  cat  from 
Algoa  Bay,  which  had  been  kept  for  some  time  on  board  and 
cGuld  be  identified  with  certainty ;  this  animal  was  left  for 
onl}^  eight  weeks  at  Mombas,  but  during  that  short  period  it 
"  underwent  a  complete  metamorphosis,  having  parted  with 
its  sandy-coloured  fur."  A  cat  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
lias  been  described  by  Desmarest  as  remarkable  from  a  red 
stripe  extending  along  the  whole  length  of  its  back.  Through- 
out an  immense  area,  namely,  the  Malayan  archipelago,  Siam, 
I^egu,  and  Burmah,  all  the  cats  have  truncated  tails  about 
half  the  proper  length,^*'  often  with  a  sort  of  knot  at  the  end. 
In  the  Caroline  archipelago  the  cats  have  very  long  legs,  and 
are  of  a  reddish-yellow  colour.^''  In  China  a  breed  has  droop- 
ing ears.  At  Tobolsk,  according  to  Gmelin,  there  is  a  red- 
coloured  breed.  In  Asia,  also,  we  find  the  well-known  Angora 
or  Persian  breed. 

The  domestic  cat  has  run  wild  in  several  countries,  and 
everywhere  assumes,  as  far  as  can  be  judged  hj  the  short 
recorded  descriptions,  a  uniform  character.  Near  Maldonado, 
in  La  Plata,  I  shot  one  which  seemed  perfectly  wild ;  it  was 
carefully  examined  by  Mr.  Waterhouse,^^  who  found  nothing 
remarkable  in  it,  excepting  its  great  size.  In  New  Zealand 
according  to  DielFenbach,  the  feral  cats  assume  a  streaky  grey 
colour  like  that  of  wild  cats ;  and  this  is  the  case  with  the 
half- wild  cats  of  the  Scotch  Highlands. 

We  have  seen  that  distant  countries  possess  distinct 
domestic  races  of  the  cat.  The  differences  may  be  in  part 
due  to  descent  from  several  aboriginal  species,  or  at  least  to 
crosses  with  them.  In  some  cases,  as  in  Paraguay,  ]\Jombas, 
and  Antigua,  the  differences  seem  due  to  the  direct  action  of 
different  conditions  of  life.  In  other  cases  some  slight  eB'ect 
may  possibly  be  attributed  to  natural  selection,   as  cats  in 

95  <  Narrative  of  Voyages,'  vol.  ii.  ^"  Admiral     Lutke's    Voyage,    vol. 

p.  180.  iii.  p.  308. 

'*''  J.  Crawfurd,  '  Descript.  Diet,  of  ^*  '  Zoology  of  the  Voyage   of  the 

the    Indian    Islands,'    p.    255.      The  Beagle,  Mammalia,'  p.  20.      Dieflen- 

Madagascav   cat    is    said    to    have    a  bach,  '  Travels  in  New   Z'\Tland,  vol. 

twisted  tail ;  sec  Desmarest,  in  '  En-  ii.  p.  185.    Ch.  St.  John,  '  Wild  Sporta 

cyclop.    Nat.  Mamm.,'  1820,  p.  233,  of  the  Highlands,'  1846,  p.  40. 
for  some  of  the  other  breeds. 
5 


50  DOMESTIC   CATS.  Chap.  I. 

many  caces  have  largely  to  support  themselves  and  to  escape 
diverse  dangers.  But  man,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  pairing 
cats,  has  done  nothing  by  methodical  selection  ;  and  probably 
very  little  by  unintentional  selection ;  though  in  each  litter 
he  generally  saves  the  prettiest,  and  values  most  a  good  breed 
of  mouse-  or  rat-catchers.  Those  cats  which  have  a  strong 
tendency  to  prowl  after  game,  generally  get  destroyed  by 
traps.  As  cats  are  so  much  petted,  a  breed  bearing  the  same 
relation  to  other  cats,  that  lapdogs  bear  to  larger  dogs,  would 
have  been  much  valued ;  and  if  selection  could  have  been 
ajDiolied,  we  should  certainly  have  had  many  breeds  in  each 
long-civilized  country,  for  there  is  plenty  of  variability  to 
work  upon. 

We  see  in  this  country  considerable  diversity  in  size,  some 
in  the  proportions  of  the  body,  and  extreme  variability  in 
colouring.  I  have  only  lately  attended  to  this  subject,  but 
have  already  heard  of  some  singular  cases  of  variation ;  one 
of  a  cat  born  in  the  West  Indies  toothless,  and  remaining  so 
all  its  life.  Mr.  Tegetmeier  has  shown  me  the  skull  of  a 
female  cat  with  its  canines  so  much  developed  that  they 
protruded  uncovered  beyond  the  lips;  the  tooth  with  the 
fang  being  -95,  and  the  part  projecting  from  the  gum  -6  of 
an  inch  in  length.  I  have  heard  of  several  families  of  six- 
toed  cats,  in  one  of  which  the  peculiarity  had  been  trans- 
mitted for  at  least  three  generations.  The  tail  varies  greatly 
in  length ;  I  have  seen  a  cat  which  always  carried  its  tail 
■flat  on  its  back  when  pleased.  The  ears  vary  in  shape,  and 
certain  strains,  in  England,  inherit  a  pencil-like  tuft  of  hairs, 
above  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length,  on  the  tips  of  their 
ears;  and  this  same  peculiarity,  according  to  Mr.  Blyth,  cha- 
racterises some  cats  in  India.  The  great  variability  in  the 
length  of  the  tail  and  the  lynx-like  tufts  of  hairs  on  the  ears 
are  apparently  analogous  to  diflferei^ces  in  certain  wild  species 
of  the  genus.  A  much  more  important  difference,  according 
to  Daubenton,^^  is  that  the  intestines  of  domestic  cats  are 
wider,  and  a  third  longer,  than  in  wild  cats  of  the  same  size  ; 
and  this  apparently  has  been  by  their  less  strictly  carnivorous 
diet. 

»''  Quoted  by  Isid.  Gecffrov,  *  Hist.  Nat.  Gen.,   torn  ni.  p.  427. 


Chap.  II.  HORSES  *.    THEIE   VAEIATION.  51 


CHAPTEE  II. 

HORSES  AND  ASSES. 

nORSE. — DIFFEUENCES  IN  THE  BREEDS — INDIVIDUAL  VARIABILITY  OF — 
DIRECT  EFFECTS  OF  THE  CONDITIONS  OF  LIFE — CAN  WITHSTAND  MUCH  COLD 
— BREEDS    MUCH     MODIFIED     BY    SELECTION — COLOURS     OF    THE    HORSE — • 

DAPPLING DARK  STRIPES  ON  THE  SPINE,  LEGS,  SHOULDERS,  AND  FOREHEAD 

— DUN-COLOURED  HORSES  MOST  FREQUENTLY  STRIPED — STRIPES  PROBABLY 
DUE  TO  REVERSION  TO  THE  PRIMITIVE  STATE  OF  THE  HORSE. 

ASSES. — BREEDS  OP — COLOUR  OF — LEG-  AND  SHOULDER-  STRIPES — SHOULDER- 
STRIPES  SOMETIMES  ABSENT,  SOMETIMES  FORKED. 

The  history  of  tlie  Horse  is  lost  in  antiquity.  Remains  of 
this  animal  in  a  domesticated  condition  have  been  found  in 
the  Swiss  lake-dwellings,  belonging  to  the  Keolithic  period.^ 
At  the  present  time  the  number  of  breeds  is  great,  as  may  be 
seen  by  consulting  any  treatise  on  the  Horse. ^  Looking 
only  to  the  native  ponies  of  Great  Britain,  those  of  the 
Shetland  Isles,  Wales,  the  Kew  Forest,  and  Devonshire  are 
distinguishable ;  and  so  it  is,  amongst  other  instances,  with 
each  separate  island  in  the  great  Malay  archipelago.^  Some 
of  the  breeds  present  great  differences  in  size,  shape  of  ears, 
length  of  mane,  proportions  of  the  body,  form  of  the  withers 
and  hind  quarters,  and  especially  in  the  head.  Compare  the 
race-horse,  dray-horse,  and  a  Shetland  pony  in  size,  con- 
figuration, and  disposition  ;  and  see  how  much  greater  the 
difference  is  than  between  the  seven  or  eight  other  living 
species  of  the  genus  Equus. 

^  Rutimeyer,    'Fauna    der    Pfahl-  island  having  at  least  one  peculiar  to 

bauten,'  18BI,  s.  122.  it."     Thus  in  Sumatra  there  are  at 

*  See    Youatt    on    the    Horse:     J.  least  two  breeds;  in  Achin  and  Batu- 

Lawrence  on  the  Horse,  1829;   W.  C.  bara    one;    in    Java    several    breed:-; 

L.    IVIartin,    *  History   of  the  Horse,'  one  in  Bali,  Lomboc,  Sumbawa  (one 

1845:     Col.    H.     Smith,     in     'Nat.  of  the  best  breeds),  Tambora,  Bima, 

Library,     Horses,'     1841,     vol.     xii. :  Gunung-api,     Celebes,     Suniba,      and 

Prof.    Veith,  '  Die   naturgesch.  Haus-  Philippines.     Other  breeds  are  speci- 

saugethiere,'  1856.  lied   by  Zollinger  in  the  'Journal  of 

^  Crawfurd,    '  Descript.     Diet,     of  the  Indian  Archipelago,'  vol.  v.  \k  343, 

Indian  Islands,'  1856,  p.  153.  "There  &c. 
»trc     many    different     breeds,    every 


52  .  HOESES.  Chap.  TI, 

Of  iudividual  variations  not  known  to  cliaracterise  par- 
ti(;ular  breeds,  and  not  great  or  injurious  enough,  to  be  called 
monstrosities,  I  have  not  collected  many  cases.  Mr.  G.  Brown, 
of  the  Cirencester  Agricultural  College,  who  has  particularly- 
attended  to  the  dentition  of  our  domestic  animals,  writes  to 
me  that  he  has  "several  times  noticed  eight  permanent 
incisors  instead  of  six  in  the  jaw."  Male  horses  only 
should  have  canines,  but  they  are  occasionally  found  in  the 
mare,  though  a  small  size.^  The  number  of  ribs  on  each 
side  is  properly  eighteen,  but  Youatt^  asserts  that,  not 
unfrequently  there  are  nineteen,  the  additional  one  being 
always  the  posterior  rib.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the 
ancient  Indian  horse  is  said  in  the  Eig-Veda  to  have  only 
seventeen  ribs  ;  and  M.  Pietrement,*^  who  has  called  attention 
to  this  subject,  gives  various  reasons  for  placing  full  trust  in 
this  statement,  more  especially  as  during  former  times  the 
Hindoos  carefully  counted  the  bones  of  animals.  I  have  seen 
several  notices  of  variations  in  the  bones  of  the  leg;  thus 
Mr.  Price  '^  speaks  of  an  additional  bone  in  the  hock,  and  of 
certain  abnormal  appearances  between  the  tibia  and  astra- 
galus, as  quite  common  in  Irish  horses,  and  not  due  to  disease. 
Horses  have  often  been  observed,  according  to  M.  Gaudry,^ 
to  possess  a  trapezium  and  a  rudiment  of  a  fifth  metacarpal 
bone,  so  that  "  one  sees  appearing  by  monstrosity,  in  the  foot 
of  the  horse,  structures  which  normally  exist  in  the  foot  of 
the  Hipparion," — an  allied  and  extinct  animal.  In  various 
countries  horn-like  projections  have  been  observed  on  the 
frontal  bones  of  the  horse :  in  one  case  described  by  Mr. 
Percival  they  arose  about  two  inches  above  the  orbital  pro- 
cesses, and  were  "  very  like  those  in  a  calf  from  five  to  six 
months  old,"  being  from  half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in 
leno-th.^     Azara  has  described  two  cases  in  South  America  in 

o 

*  'The   Horse,'  &c.  by  John  Law-  xxii..  1866,  p.  22. 
reace,  1829,  p.  14.  ^  Mr.  Percival,  of  the  Eniiiskillen 

^  'The  Veterinary,'  London,  vol.  v.  Dragoons,  in  "The  Veterinary,'  vol.  i. 

p.  543.  p.  224:  see  Azara,  '  Des  Quadrupedes 

"  'Memoire    sur    les     chevaux    a  du   Paraguay,'  torn,  ii.  p.  318.     The 

trente-quatre  cotes,'  1871.  French  translator  of  Azara  refers  to 

^  Proc.  Veterinary  Assoc,  in  'The  other  cases  mentioned  by  Hazard  aa 

V^eterinary,'  vol.  xiii.  p.  42.  having  occurred  in  Spain. 

**  '  Rullptiu  de  la  Soc.  Geblog.,' torn. 


Chap.  II.  THEIK    VARIATION.  53 

whicli  the  projections  were  between  three  and  four  inches  in 
length  :  other  instances  have  occurred  in  Spain. 

That  there  has  been  much  inherited  variation  in  the  horse 
cannot  be  doubted,  when  we  reflect  on  the  number  of  the 
breeds  existing  throughout  the  world  or  even  within  the 
same  country,  and  when  we  know  that  they  have  largely 
increased  in  number  since  the  earliest  known  records. ^°  Even 
in  so  fleeting  a  character  as  colour,  Hofacker  ^^  found  that, 
out  of  216  cases  in  which  horses  of  the  same  colour  were 
paired,  only  eleven  pairs  produced  foals  of  a  quite  different 
colour.  As  Professor  Low  ^^  has  remarked,  the  English  race- 
horse offers  the  best  possible  evidence  of  inheritance.  The 
pedigree  of  a  race-horse  is  of  more  value  in  judging  of  its 
probable  success  than  its  appearance  :  "  King  Herod  "  gained 
in  prizes  201,50oZ.  sterling,  and  begot  497  winners ;  ''  Eclipse  ' 
begot  334  winners. 

Whether  the  whole  amount  of  difference  between  the 
various  breeds  has  arisen  under  domestication  is  doubtful. 
From  the  fertility  of  the  most  distinct  breeds  ^^  when  crossed, 
naturalists  have  generally  looked  at  all  the  breeds  as  having 
descended  from  a  single  species.  Few  will  agree  with 
Colonel  H.  Smith,  who  believes  that  they  have  descended 
from  no  less  than  five  primitive  and  differently  coloured 
stocks.^*  But  as  several  species  and  varieties  of  the  horse 
existed  ^^  during  the  later  tertiary  periods,  and  as  Riitimeyer 
found  differences  in  the  size  and  form  of  the  skull  in  the 
earliest  known  domesticated  horses, ^^  we  ought  not  to  feel 
sure  that  all  our  breeds  are  descended  from  a  single  species. 

'"  GodroD,    '  De    I'Espfece,'    torn.   i.  tendency    has    been    more    carefully 

p.  378.  observed. 

^^  '  Ueber  die   Eigenschaftcn,'  &c.,  ^^  Andrew  Knight  crossed  breeds  so 

1828,  s.  10.  different  in  size  as  a  dray-horse  and 

^-  '  Domesticated    Animals    of   the  Norwegian   pony :    see  A.  Walker  on 

British  Islands,'  pp.  527,  532.     In  all  'Intermarriage,'  1838,  p.  205. 

the   A'eterinary  treatises    and    papers  '*  '  Nat.   Library,  Horses,'  vol.  xii. 

which  I  have  read,  the  writers  insist  p.  208. 

in  the  strongest  terms  on  the  inherit-  ^^  Gervais,    '  Hist.     Nat     Mamm., 

ance  by  the  horse  of  all  good  and  bad  torn.  ii.  p.  143,    Owen,  '  British  Fossil 

tendencies  and  qualities.    Perhaps  the  Mammals,'  p.  383. 

principle  of  inheritance  is  not  really  '^  '  Kenntniss  der  fossilp.n  Pferde, 

stronger  in  the  horse  than  in  any  other  1863,  s.  131. 
\ninaal ;    but,    from    its    value,    the 


54  HOESES.  Chap.  II, 

The  savages  of  North  and  South  America  easily  reclaim  the 
feral  horses,  so  that  there  is  no  improbability  in  ravages  in 
various  quarters  of  the  wtjrld  having  domesticated  moie  than 
one  native  species  or  natural  race.  M.  Sanson  ^^  thinks  that 
he  has  proved  that  two  distinct  species  have  been  domesti- 
cated, one  in  the  East,  and  one  in  North  Africa ;  and  that 
these  differed  in  the  number  of  their  lumbar  vertebra  and  in 
vari'  us  other  parts ;  but  M.  Sanson  seems  to  believe  that  osteo- 
logical  characteis  are  subject  to  very  little  variation,  which 
is  certainly  a  mistake.  At  present  no  aboriginal  or  truly 
wild  horse  is  positively  known  to  exist;  for  it  is  commonly 
believed  that  the  wild  horses  of  the  East  are  escaped 
domestic  animals. ^^  If  therefore  our  domestic  breeds  are 
descended  from  several  species  or  natural  races,  all  have 
become  extinct  in  the  wild  state. 

With  respect  to  the  causes  of  the  modifications  which 
horses  have  undergone,  the  conditions  of  life  seem  to  produce 
a  considerable  direct  effect.  Mr.  D.  Eorbes,  who  has  had 
excellent  opportunities  of  comparing  the  horses  of  Spain 
with  those  of  South  America,  informs  me  that  the  horses  of 
Chile,  which  have  lived  under  nearly  the  same  conditions  as 
their  progenitors  in  Andalusia,  remain  unaltered,  whilst  the 
Pampas  horses  and  the  Puno  ponies  are  considerably  modified. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  horses  become  greatly  reduced 
in  size  ynd  altered  in  appearance  by  living  on  mounxains 
and  islands ;  and  this  apparently  is  due  to  want  of  nutritious 
or  N  aried  food.  Every  one  knows  how  small  and  rugged  the 
ponies  are  on  the  Northern  islands  and  on  the  mountains  of 
Europe.  Corsica  and  Sardinia  have  their  native  ponies  ;  and 
there  were,^^  or  still  are,  on  !-ome  islands  on  the  coast  of 
Virginia,  ponies  like  those  of  the  Shetland  Islands,  which 
are  believed  to  have  originated  through  exposure  to  un- 
favourable conditions.     The  Puno  ponies,  which  inhabit  the 

'^  '  Comptes  rendus,'  1866,  p.  4-85,  remarked  on  the  improbability  of  mnn 

jud' Journal  de  I'Anat.  etde  la  Ph vs.,'  in  ancient  times  having  extirpated  a 

Mai  1868.  species  in  a  region  where  it  can  no-";* 

13  Mr.    W.    C.    L.    Martin    (  '  The  exist  in  numbers. 
Horse,'     1845,    p.    34),    in    arguing  ^^  'Transact.  Maryl.^nd  Academy, 

against     the    belief    that    the    wild  vol.  i.  part  i.  p.  28. 
Eastern  horses   are  merely  feral,  has 


CiiAP.  11.  THEIR   VARIATION.  55 

lofty  regions  of  the  Cordillera,  are,  as  I  hear  from  Mr.  D. 
Forbes,  strange  little  creatures,  very  unlike  their  SjDanish 
progenitors.  Further  south,  in  the  Falkland  Islands,  the 
offspring  of  the  horses  imported  in  1764  have  already  so 
much  deteriorated  in  size  ^°  and  strength  that  they  are  un- 
fitted for  catching  vs^ild  cattle  with  the  lasso ;  so  that  fresh 
horses  have  to  be  brought  for  this  purpose  from  La  Plata  at 
a  great  expense.  The  reduced  size  of  the  horses  bred  on 
"both  southern  and  northern  islands,  and  on  several  moun- 
tain-chains, can  hardly  have  been  caused  by  the  cold,  as  a 
similar  reduction  has  occurred  on  the  Virginian  and  Medi- 
terranean islands.  The  horse  can  withstand  intense  cold, 
for  wild  troops  live  on  the  plains  of  Siberia  under  lat.  56°,^^ 
and  aboriginally  the  horses  must  have  inhabited  countries 
annually  covered  with  snow,  for  he  long  retains  the  instinct 
of  scraping  it  away  to  get  at  the  herbage  beneath.  The 
wild  tarpans  in  the  East  have  this  instinct ;  and  so  it  is,  as 
I  am  informed  by  Admiral  Sulivan,  with  the  horses  recently 
and  formerly  introduced  into  the  Falkland  Islands  from 
La  Plata,  s-ome  of  which  have  run  wild ;  this  latter  fact  is 
remarkable,  as  the  progenitors  of  these  horses  could  not  have 
followed  this. instinct  during  many  generations  in  La  Plata. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  wild  cattle  of  the  Falkland s  never 
scrape  away  the  snow,  and  perish  when  the  ground  is  long 
covered.  In  the  northern  parts  of  America  the  horses  de- 
scended from  those  introduced  by  the  Spanish  conquerors  of 
Mexico,  have  the  pame  habit,  as  have  the  native  bisons,  but 
not  iso  the  cattle  introduced  from  Europe.^^ 

The  horse  can  flourish  under  intense  heat  as  well  as  under 
intense  cold,  for  he  is  known  to  come  to  the  highest  perfec- 
tion, though  not  attaining  a  large  size,  in  Arabia  and 
northern  Africa.  Much  humidity  is  apparently  more  in- 
jurous  to  the  horse  than  heat  or  cold.  In  the  Falkland 
Islands,  horses    suffer  much  from  the  dampness;    and  this 

20  Mr.  Mackinnon  on  '  The  Falkland  burgh/  1777,  part  ii.  p.  265.  With 
.slands,'  p.  25.  The  average  height  of  respect  to  the  tarpans  scraping  away 
the  Falkland  horses  is  said  to  be  14  the  snow,  tee  Col.  Hamilton  Smith  lu 
bands  2  inches.     See  also  my  '  Journal  '  Nat.  Lib,'  vol.  xii.  p.  165. 

of  Researches.'  -^  Franklin's  '  Narrative,'  vol.  \.  p 

21  Pallas,   '  Act.    .-^oad.  St.  Peters-       87  ;  note  by  Sir  J.  Richardson. 


5(5  HOESES.  Chap.  IL 

circumstance  jnay  perhaps  partly  account  for  the  singular 
fact  that  to  the  eastward  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal, ^^  over  an 
enormous  and  humid  area,  in  Ava,  Pegu,  Siam,  the  Malayan 
archipelago,  the  Loo  Choo  Islands,  and  a  large  part  of 
China,  no  full-sized  horse  is  found.  VV  hen  we  advance  as 
far  eastward  as  Japan,  the  horse  reacquires  his  full  size.^'^ 

W  ith  most  of  our  domesticated  animals,  some  breeds  are 
liept  on  account  of  their  curiosity  or  beauty;  but  the  horse 
is  valued  almost  solely  for  its  utility.  Hence  semi-monstrous 
breeds  are  not  preserved ;  and  probably  all  the  existing 
breeds  have  been  slowly  formed  either  by  the  direct  action 
of  the  conditions  of  life,  or  through  the  selection  of  individual 
differences.  Ko  doubt  semi-monstrous  breeds  might  have 
been  formed  :  thus  Mr.  Waterton  records  -°  the  case  of  a  mare 
A^hich  produced  successively  three  foals  without  tails ;  so 
that  a  tailless  race  might  have  been  formed  like  the  tailless 
races  of  dogs  and  cats.  A  Russian  breed  of  horses  is  said  to 
have  curled  hair,  and  Azara  ^"^  relates  that  in  Paraguay 
horses  are  occasionally  born,  but  are  generally  destroyed, 
with  hair  like  that  on  the  head  of  a  negro ;  and  this  pecu- 
liarity is  transmitted  even  to  half-breeds  :  it  is  a  curious 
case  of  correlation  that  such  horses  have  short  manes  and 
tails,  and  their  hoofs  are  of  a  peculiar  shape  like  those  of 
a  mule. 

It  is  scarcely  possible  to  doubt  that  the  long-continued 
selection  of  qualities  serviceable  to  man  has  been  the  chief 
agent  in  the  formation  of  the  several  breeds  of  the  horse. 
Look  at  a  dray-horse,  and  see  how  well  adapted  he  is  to  draw 
heavy  weights,  and  how  unlike  in  appearance  to  any  allied 
wild  animal.  The  English  race-horse  is  known  to  be  de- 
rived from  the  commingled  blood  of  Arabs,  Turks,  and 
Barbs ;  but  selection,  which  was  carried  on  during  very  early 

2^  Mr.  J.  H.  IMoor,  '  Notices  of  the  Service  Institution,'  vol.  iv. 
[fiiian  Archipelago  ;'  Singapore,  1837,  ^^  '  Essays  on  Natural  History,'  2nd 

p.  189.     A  pony  from  Java  was  sent  series,  p.  161. 

(' Athenasum,'   1842,  p.  718)  to  the  ^^  '  Quadrupe'des     da      Paraguay,' 

Queen  only  28  inches  in  height.      For  toni.  ii.  p.  333.      Dr.  Canfield  informs 

the   Loo  Choo  Island',  see  Beechey's  me  that  a  breed  with  curly  hair  was 

*  A^cyage,'  4th  edit.,  vul.  i.  p.  499.  formd  by  selection  at  Los  Angeles  in 

'''■'  J.    Jrawford,    '  History    of    the  North  America. 
Horse;'    *  Journal   of   lioj^al   United 


OiiAP.  II.  THEIR   COLOURS   AND    STRIPES.  57 

times  in  England,^^  together  "with  training,  have  made  him  a 
very  different  animal  from  his  parent-stocks.  As  a  writer  in 
India,  who  evidently  knows  the  pure  Arab  well,  asks,  who 
now,  "  looking  at  our  present  breed  of  race-horses,  could  have 
conceived  that  they  were  the  result  of  tlie  union  of  the  Arab 
horse  and  African  mare  ?  "  The  improvement  is  so  marked 
that  in  running  for  the  Goodwood  Cup  "  the  first  descendants 
of  Arabian,  Turkish,  and  Persian  horses,  are  allowed  a  dis- 
count of  18  lbs.  weight ;  and  when  both  parents  are  of  these 
countries  a  discount  of  36  Ibs.'^^  It  is  notorious  that  the 
Arabs  have  long  been  as  careful  about  the  pedigree  of  their 
horses  as  we  are,  and  this  implies  great  and  continued  care 
in  breeding.  Seeing  what  has  been  done  in  England  by 
careful  breeding,  can  we  doubt  that  the  Arabs  must  likewise 
have  produced  during  the  course  of  centuries  a  marked  effect 
on  the  qualities  of  their  horses?  But  we  may  go  much 
farther  back  in  time,  for  in  the  Bible  we  hear  of  studs  care- 
fully kept  for  breeding,  and  of  horses  imported  at  high  prices 
from  various  countries.^^  We  may  therefore  conclude  that, 
whether  or  not  the  various  existing  breeds  of  the  horse  have 
proceeded  from  one  or  more  aboriginal  stocks,  yet  that  a  great 
amount  of  change  has  resulted  from  the  direct  action  of  the 
conditions  of  life,  and  probably  a  still  greater  amount  from 
the  long-continued  selection  by  man  of  slight  individual 
differences. 

With  several  domesticated  quadrupeds  and  birds,  certain 
coloured  marks  are  either  strongly  inherited  or  tend  to  re- 
appear after  having  been  lost  for  a  long  time.  As  this 
subject  will  hereafter  be  seen  to  be  of  importance,  I  will  give 
a  full  account  of  the  colouring  of  horses.     All  English  breeds, 

2^  See  the  evidence  on  this  head  in  tance    in    running    two    miles   with 

'Land  and  Water,'  May  2nd,  1868.  thoroughbred  racers."     Some  few  in- 

^*  Prof.    Low,  '  Domesticated  Ani-  stances  are   on  record  of  seven-eights 

mals,'  p.   546.     With  respect  to   the  racers  having  been  successful, 

writer   in  India,  see  '  India    Sporting  ^^  Prof.  Gervais  (in  his  '  Hist,  Nat. 

Review,'  vol.  ii.  p.  181.    As  Lawrence  Mamm.,'  torn.  ii.  p,  IW)  has  collected 

has   remarked    (  '  The  Horse,'  p.   9),  many  facts  on  this  head.    For  instance, 

''  perhaps    no  instance    has    ever    oc-  Solomon  (Kings,   B.  i.  ch.  x.  v.   28) 

curred  of  a  three-part  bred  horse  (i.e.  bought    horses    in    F-gypt    at   a  high 

H  horse,  one  of  whose    grandparents  price. 
was  of  impure  blood)  saving  his  dis- 


58  HORSES.  Chap.  II 

however  unlike  in  size  and  appearance,  and  several  of  those 
in  India  and  the  Malay  archipelago,  present  a  similar  range 
and  diversity  of  colour.  The  English  race-horse,  however, 
is  said  ^°  never  to  be  dun-coloured ;  but  as  dun  and  cream- 
coloured  horses  are  considered  by  the  Arabs  as  worthless, 
"  and  fit  only  for  Jews  to  ride,"  ^^  these  tints  may  have  been 
removed  by  long-continued  selection.  Horses  of  every  colour, 
and  of  such  widely  different  kinds  as  dray-horses,  cobs,  and 
ponies,  are  all  occasionally  dappled,^^  in  the  same  manner  as 
is  so  conspicuous  with  grey  horses.  This  fact  does  not  throw 
any  clear  light  on  the  colouring  of  the  aboriginal  horse,  but 
is  a  case  of  analogous  variation,  for  even  asses  are  sometimes 
dappled,  and  I  have  seen,  in  the  British  Museum,  a  hybrid 
from  the  ass  and  zebra  dappled  on  its  hinder  quarters.  By 
the  exjDression  analogous  variation  (and  it  is  one  that  I 
shall  often  have  occasion  to  use)  I  mean  a  variation  occurring 
in  a  species  or  variety  which  resembles  a  normal  character  in 
another  and  distinct  species  or  variety.  Analogous  variations 
may  arise,  as  will  be  explained  in  a  future  chapter,  from  two 
or  more  forms  with  a  similar  constitution  having  been  ex- 
posed to  similar  conditions,—  or  from  one  of  two  forms  having 
reacquired  through  reversion  a  character  inherited  by  the 
other  form  from  their  common  progenitor, —  or  from  both 
forms  having  reverted  to  the  same  ancestral  character.  We 
shall  immediately  see  that  horses  occasionally  exhibit  a  ten- 
dency to  become  striped  over  a  large  part  of  their  bodies; 
and  as  we  know  that  in  the  varieties  of  the  domestic  cat  and 
in  several  feline  species  stripes  readily  pass  into  spots  and 
cloudy  marks — even  the  cubs  of  the  uniformly-coloured  lion 
being  spotted  with  dark  marks  on  a  lighter  ground — wo 
may  suspect  that  the  dappling  of  the  horse,  which  has  been 

=^"  'The  Field,' July  13th,  1861,  p.  because  it   has  been  stated  (Martiti, 

'i2.  'History  of  the  Horse,'  p.  lo4)  that 

^^  E.  Vernon  Harcourt,   'Sporting  duns  are  never  dappled.     Martin  (p. 

iu  Algeria,'  p.  26.  205)  i-efers  to  dappled  asses.     In  the 

^2  1  state  this  from  my  o'wii  obser-  Farrier  '  (London,  1828,  pp.  453,  455) 

vations  mado.  during  several  years  on  there  are  some  good  remarks  on  th-.' 

the    colours    of  horses.   I    have  seen  dappling  of  horses ;    and  likewise  iu 

crcam-r.oloured,  light-dun  and  mouse-  Col.  Hamilton  Smith  on  'The  Horse 
(Um  Loiscs  dappled,  which  I  mention 


CUAF.  II. 


THEIR,   COLOURS    AKD    STRIPES. 


59 


noticed  by  some  authors  with  surprise,  is  a  modification  or 
vestige  of  a  tendency  to  become  striped. 

This  tendency  in  the  liorse  to  become  striped  is  in  several  respects 
an  interesting  fact.  Horses  of  all  colours,  of  the  most  diverse  breeds, 
in  various  parts  of  the  world,  often  have  a  dark  stripe  extending 
along  the  spine,  from  the  mane  to  the  tail ;  but  this  is  so  common 
that^I  need  enter  into  no  particulars.^^  Occasionally  horses  are 
trausversely  barred  on  the  legs,  chiefly  on  the  under  side;  and  more 
rarely  they  have  a  distinct  stripe  on  the  shoulder,  like  that  on  the 
shoulder  of  the  ass,  or  a  broad  dark  patch  representing  a  stripe. 
Before  entering  on  any  details  I  must  premise  that  the  term  dun- 
coloured  is  vague,  and  includes  three  groups  of  colours,  viz.,  that 


.S^r-^—^^^-^^rff^^^''^^-^ 


^AV'- 


ipc^.^/   T! 


Fig.  1. — Dun  Devonshire  Pony,  with  shoulder,  spinal,  and  leg  stripes. 

between  cream-colour  and  reddish-brown,  which  graduates  into 
light-bay  or  light-chestnut — this,  I  believe  is  often  called  fallow- 
dun  ;  secondly,  leaden  or  slate-colour  or  mouse-dun,  which  graduates 
into  an  ash-colour;  and,  lastly,  dark-dun,  between  brown  and  black. 
In  England  I  have  examined  a  rather  large,  lightly-built,  fallow- 
dun  Devonshire  pony  (fig.  1),  with  a  conspicnous  stripe  along  the 
back,  with  light  transverse  stripes  on  the  under  sides  of  its  front 
legs,  and  with  four  parallel  stripes  on  each  shoulder.  Of  these  four 
stripes  the  posterior  one  was  very  minute  and  faint ;  the  anterior 
one,  on  the  other  hand,  was  long  and  broad,  but  interrupted  in  the 


^^  Some  details  are  given  in  'The 
Farrier,'  1828,  pp.  452,  455.  One  of 
the  smallest  ponie^^  I  ever  saw,  of  the 
colour  of  a  mouye,  had  a  conspicuous 
spinal  stripe.     A  small  Indian  chest- 


nut pony  had  the  same  stripe,  as  had 
a  remarkably  heavy  chestnut  cart- 
horse. Race-horses  often  have  the 
spinal  stripe. 


60  HORSES.  Chap.  IT 

middle,  and  truncated  at  its  lower  extremity,  "with  the  anterioi 
,'\ngle  produced  into  a  long  tapering  point.  I  mention  this  latter 
fact  because  the  shoulder- stripe  of  the  ass  occasionally  presents 
exactly  the  same  appearance.  I  have  had  an  outline  and  description 
gent  to  me  of  a  small,  purely-bred,  light  fallow-dun  Welch  pony, 
with  a  spinal  stripe,  a  single  transverse  stripe  on  each  leg,  and  three 
shoulder-stripes ;  the  posterior  stripe  corresponding  with  that  on 
the  shoulder  of  the  ass  was  the  longest,  whilst  the  two  anterior 
parallel  stripes,  arising  from  the  mane,  decreased  in  length,  in  a 
reversed  manner  as  compared  with  the  shoulder-stripes  on  the 
above-described  Devonshire  pony.  I  have  seen  a  bright  fallow-dun 
cob,  with  its  front  legs  transversely  barred  on  the  under  sides  in  the 
most  conspicuous  manner ;  also  a  dark-leaden  mouse -coloured  pony 
with  similar  leg  stripes,  but  much  less  conspicuous ;  also  a  bright 
fallow- dun  colt,  fully  three-parts  thoroughbred,  with  very  plain 
transvere  stripes  on  the  legs ;  also  a  chestnut-dun  cart-horse  with 
a  conspicuous  spinal  stripe,  with  distinct  traces  of  shoulder-stripes, 
but  none  on  the  legs ;  I  could  add  other  cases.  My  son  made  a 
sketch  for  me  of  a  large,  heavy,  Belgian  cart-horse,  of  a  fallow-dun, 
with  a  conspicuous  spinal  stripe,  traces  of  leg-stripes,  and  with  two 
parallel  (three  inches  apart)  stripes  about  seven  or  eight  inches  in 
length  on  both  shoulders.  I  have  seen  another  rather  light  cart- 
horse, of  a  dirty  dark  cream-colour,  with  striped  legs,  and  on  one 
shoulder  a  large  ill-defined  dark  cloudy  patch,  and  on  the  opposite 
shoulder  two  parallel  faint  stripes.  All  the  cases  yet  mentioned  are 
duns  of  various  tints ;  but  Mr.  W.  W.  Edwards  has  seen  a  nearly 
thoroughbred  chestnut  horse  which  had  the  spinal  stripe,  and 
distinct  bars  on  the  legs ;  and  I  have  seen  two  bay  carriage-horses 
with  black  spinal  stripes;  one  of  these  horses  had  on  each  shoulder 
a  light  shoulder-stripe,  and  the  other  had  a  broad  back  ill-defined 
stripe,  running  obliquely  half-way  down  each  shoulder ;  neither  had 
leg-stripes. 

The  most  interesting  case  which  I  have  met  with  occurred  in  a 
colt  of  my  own  breeding.  A  bay  mare  (descended  from  a  dark- 
brown  Flemish  mare  by  a  light  grey  Turcoman  horse)  was  put  to 
Hercules,  a  thoroughbred  dark  bay,  whose  sire  (Kingston)  and  dam 
were  both  bays.  The  colt  ultimately  turned  out  brown ;  but  when 
only  a  fortnight  old  it  was  a  dirty  bay,  shaded  with  mouse-grey, 
and  in  parts  with  a  yellowish  tint :  it  had  only  a  trace  of  the  spinal 
stripe,  with  a  few  obscure  transverse  bars  on  the  legs ;  but  almost 
the  whole  body  was  marked  with  very  narrow  dark  stripes,  in  most 
parts  so  obscure  as  to  be  visible  only  in  certain  lights,  like  the 
stripes  which  may  be  seen  on  black  kittens.  These  stripes  were 
distinct  on  the  hind-quarters,  where  they  diverged  from  the  spine, 
and  pointed  a  little  forwards;  many  of  them  as  they  diverged 
became  a  little  branched,  exactly  in  the  same  manner  as  in  some 
zebrine  species.  The  stripes  were  plainest  on  the  forehead  between 
the  ears,  where  they  formed  a  set  of  pointed  arches,  one  under 
the  other,  decreasing  in  size  downwards  towards  the  muzzle; 
exactly  similar  marks  may  be  seen  on  the  forehead  of  the  quagga 


Chap.  II.  THEIR   COLOURS   AND   STRIPES.  61 

and.  Burcliell's  zebra.  When  tlii>!  foal  was  two  or  three  months  old 
all  the  stripes  entirely  disappeared.  I  have  seen  similar  marks  on 
the  forehead  of  a  fnlly  grown,  fallow-dun,  cob-like  horse,  having 
a  conspicuous  spinal  stripe,  and  with  its  front  legs  well  barred. 

In  Norway  the  colour  of  the  native  horse  or  pony  is  dun,  varying 
from  almost  cream-colour  to  dark-mouse  dun ;  and  an  animal  is  not 
considered  purely  bred  unless  it  has  the  spinal  and  leg-stripes.-* 
My  son  estimated  that  about  a  third  of  the  ponies  which  he  saw 
there  had  striped  legs;  he  counted  seven  stripes  on  the  fore-legs  and 
two  on  the  hind-legs  of  one  pony ;  only  a  few  of  them  exhibited 
traces  of  shoulder  stripes  ;  but  I  have  heard  of  a  cob  imported  from 
Norway  which  had  the  shoulder  as  well  as  the  other  stripes  well 
developed.  Colonel  H.  Smith  ^^  alludes  to  dun-horses  with  the 
spinal  stripe  in  the  Sierras  of  Spain;  and  the  horses  originally 
derived  from  Spain,  in  soine  parts  of  South  America,  are  now  duns. 
Sir  W.  Elliot  informs  me  that  he  inspected  a  herd  of  300  South 
American  horses  imported  into  Madras,  and  many  of  these  had 
transverse  stripes  on  the  legs  and  short  shoulder-stripes ;  the  most 
strongly  marked  indiYidual,  of  which  a  coloured  drawing  was  sent 
me,  was  a  mouse-dun,  with  the  shoulder- stripes  slightly  forked. 

in  the  North-Western  parts  of  India  striped  horses  of  more  than 
one  breed  are  apparently  commoner  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 
world;  and  I  have  received  information  respecting  them  from 
several  officers,  especially  from  Colonel  Poole,  Colonel  Curtis,  Major 
Campbell,  Brigadier  St.  John,  and  others.  The  Kattywar  horses 
are  often  fifteen  or  sixteen  hands  in  height,  and  are  well  but  lightly 
built.  They  are  of  all  colours,  but  the  several  kinds  of  duns  prevail; 
and  these  are  so  generally  striped,  that  a  horse  without  stripes  is 
not  considered  pure.  Colonel  Poole  believes  that  all  the  duns  have 
the  spinal  stripe,  the  leg-stripes  are  generally  present,  and  bethinks 
that  about  half  the  horses  have  the  shoulder-stripe ;  this  stripe  is 
sometimes  double  or  treble  on  both  shoulders.  Colonel  Poole  has 
often  seen  stripes  on  the  cheeks  and  sides  of  the  nose.  He  has  seen 
stripes  on  the  grey  and  bay  Kattywars  when  first  foaled,  but  they 
soon  faded  away.  I  have  received  other  accounts  of  cream-coloured, 
bay,  brown,  and  grey  Kattywar  hort<es  being  striped.  Eastward  of 
India,  the  Shan  (north  of  Burmah)  ponies,  as  I  am  informed  by 
Mr.  Blyth,  have  spinal,  leg,  and  shoulder  stripes.  Sir  W.  Elliot 
informs  me  that  he  saw  two  bay  Pegu  ponies  with  leg-stripes. 
Burmese  and  Javanese  ponies  are  frequently  dun-coloured,  and  have 
the  three  kinds  of  stripes,  "in  the  same  degree  as  in  England.""^ 
Mr.  Swinhoe  informs  me  that  he  examined  two  light-dun  ponies  of 


'*  I    have     received     information,  vol.  xii.  p.  275. 

fchrough  the  kindness  of  the  Consul-  ^'^  Mr.  G.  Clark,  in  '  Annal  and  ]\Iag. 

General,  Mr.  J.  R.  Crowe,  from  Prof.  of  Xat.  History,'   2nd   series,  vol.    ii 

Boeck,  Rasck,   and  Esmarck,  on  the  1848,  p.  363.     Mr.  Wallace  informs 

colours  of  the  Norwegian  ponies.    See  me  that,  he   saw  in  Java  a  dun  and 

also  'The  Fiehl,'  1861,  p.  431  clay-coloured  horse   with   spinal  aad 

'•^  Col.  Hamilton  Smith,  '  Nat.  Lib.  leg  stripes. 


62  HORSES.  CuiP.  IL 

two  Chinese  breeds,  viz.  those  of  Shanghai  and  Amoy ;  both  had  the 
spinal  stripe,  and  the  latter  an  indistinct  shonlder-stripe. 

We  thus  see  that  in  all  parts  of  the  world  breeds  of  the  horse  as 
different  as  possible,  when  of  a  dun-colour  (iacluding  under  this 
term  a  wide  range  of  tint  from  cream  to  dusty  black),  and  rarely 
when  almost  white  tinged  with  yellow,  grey,  bay,  and  chestnut,  have 
the  several  above-specified  stripes.  Horses  which  are  of  a  yellow 
colour  with  white  mane  and  tail,  and  which  are  sometimes  called 
duns,  I  have  never  seen  with  stripes.^'' 

From  reasons  which  will  be  apjDarent  in  the  chapter  on  Eeversion, 
I  have  endeavoured,  but  with  poor  success,  to  discover  whether 
duns,  which  are  so  much  oftener  striped  than  other  coloured  horses, 
are  ever  produced  from  the  crossing  of  two  horses,  neither  of  which 
are  duns.  Most  persons  to  whom  I  have  applied  believe  that  one 
parent  must  be  dun ;  and  it  is  generally  asserted,  that,  when  this  is 
the  case,  the  dun-colour  and  the  stripes  are  strongly  inherited.^^ 
One  case,  however,  has  fallen  under  my  own  observation  of  a 
foal  from  a  black  mare  by  a  bay  horse,  which  when  fully  grown 
was  a  dark  fallow-dun  and  had  a  narrow  but  plain  spinal 
Btripe.  Hofacker  '^^  gives  two  instances  of  mouse-duns  (Mausrapp) 
being  produced  from  two  parents  of  different  colours  and  neither 
duns. 

The  stripes  of  all  kinds  are  generally  plainer  in  the  foal  than  in 
the  adult  horse,  being  commonly  lost  at  the  firs^  snedding  of  the 
hair.*°  Colonel  Poole  believes  that  "the  stripes  in  the  Kattywar 
breed  are  plainest  when  the  colt  is  first  foaled ;  they  then  become 
less  and  less  distinct  till  after  the  first  coat  is  shed,  when  they  come 
out  as  strongly  as  before;  but  certainly  often  fade  away  as  the  age 
of  the  horse  increases.''  Two  other  accounts  confirm  this  fading  of 
the  stripes  in  old  horses  in  India.  One  writer,  on  the  other  hand, 
states  that  colts  are  often  born  without  stripes,  but  that  they  appear 
as  the  colt  grows  older.  Three  authorities  affirm  that  in  Norway 
the  stripes  are  less  plain  in  the  foal  than  in  the  adult.  In  the  case 
described  by  me  of  the  young  foal  which  was  narrowly  striped  over 
nearly  all  Its  body,  there  was  no  doubt  about  the  early  and  complete 
disappearance  of  the  stripes.  Mr.  W.  W.  Edwards  examined  for 
me  twenty-two  foals  of  race-horses,  and  twelve  had  the  spinal  stripe 
more  or  less  plain ;  this  fact,  and  some  other  accounts  which  I  have 
received,  lead  me  to  believe  that  the  spinal  stripe  often  disappears  in 
the  English  race-horse  when  old.  With  natural  species,  the  young 
often  exhibit  characters  which  disappear  at  maturity. 

Tlie  stripes  are  variable  in  colour,  but  are  always  darker 
than  the  rest  of  the  body.     They  do  not  by  any  means  always 

3'  See,  also,   on    this    point,    •  The  ^^  *  Ueber  die   Eigenschaften,'  &c., 

Field,'  July  27th,  1861,  p.  91.  1828,  s.  13,  14. 

'8  'The'Field,'  1861,  pp.  431,  493  "  Von  Nathusius,  '  Vortrage  iib^i 

545.  Viehzucht,'  1372,  135 


Chap.  U.  THEIR   COLOURS   AND   STRIPES.  63 

coexist  on  the  different  parts  of  the  body  :  the  legs  ruay  he 
striped  withont  any  shoulder-stripe,  or  the  converse  case, 
which  is  rarer,  may  occur ;  but  I  have  never  heard  of  either 
shoulder  or  leg-stripes  without  the  spinal  stripe.  The  latter  is 
by  far  the  commonest  of  all  the  stripes,  as  might  have  been 
expected,  as  it  characterises  the  other  seven  or  eight  species 
of  the  genus.  It  is  remarkable  that  so  trifling  a  character  as 
the  shoulder-stripe  being  double  or  triple  should  occur  in 
such  different  breeds  as  Welch  and  Devonshire  ponies,  the 
Shan  pony,  heavy  cart-horses,  light  South  American  horses, 
and  the  lanky  Kattywar  breed.  Colonel  Hamilton  Smith 
believes  that  one  of  his  five  supposed  primitive  stocks  was 
dun- coloured  and  striped ;  and  that  the  stripes  in  all  the 
other  breeds  result  from  ancient  crosses  with  this  one  primi- 
tive dun ;  but  it  is  extremely  improbable  that  different 
breeds  living  in  such  distant  quarters  of  the  world  should  all 
have  been  crossed  with  any  one  aboriginally  distinct  stock. 
Nor  have  we  any  reason  to  believe  that  the  effects  of  a  cross 
at  a  very  remote  period  would  be  propagated  for  so  many 
generations  as  is  implied  on  this  view. 

With  resj)ect  to  the  primitive  colour  of  the  horse  having 
been  dun,  Colonel  Hamilton  Smith  '^^  has  collected  a  laro-e 
body  of  evidence  showing  that  this  tint  was  common  in  the 
East  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Alexander,  and  that  the  wild 
horses  of  Western  Asia  and  Eastern  Europe  now  are,  or  re- 
cently were,  of  various  shades  of  dun.  It  seems  that  not  very 
long  ago  a  wild  breed  of  dun-coloured  horses  with  a  spinal 
stripe  was  preserved  in  the  royal  parks  in  Prussia.  I  hear 
from  Hungary  that  the  inhabitants  of  that  country  look  at 
the  duns  with  a  spinal  stripe  as  the  aboriginal  stock,  and  so 
it  is  in  Norway.  Dun-coloured  ponies  are  not  rare  in  the 
mountainous  parts  of  Devonshire,  Wales,  and  Scotland,  where 
the  aboriginal  breed  would  have  the  best  chance  of  being 

"  'Nat.  Library,'  vol.  xii.  (1841),  the  East,  who  speaks  of  dun  and  brown 

l>p.     109,     156    to     163,    280,    281.  as    the    prevalent    colours.      In    the 

Cream-colour,    passing    into    Isabella  Icelandic  sagas,  which  were  committed 

{i.e.  the  colour  of  the  dirty  linen  of  to  writing    in    the    twelfth   century, 

Queen  Isabella),  seems  to  have  been  dun-coloured    horses    with    a    black 

oommon   in  ancient  times.     See  also  spinal     stripe     are     mentioned;     set 

Pallas *3  account  of  the  wild  horses  of  Dasent's  translation,  vol.  i.  p.  169 


64  HORSES.  Chap.  TI. 

preserved.  In  South  America  in  the  time  of  Azara,  when 
the  horse  had  been  feral  for  about  250  years,  90  out  of  a  100 
horses  were  "  bai-chatains,"  and  the  remainii:)g  ten  were 
"  zains,"  that  is  brown ;  not  more  than  one  in  2000  being 
black.  In  North  America  the  feral  horses  show  a  strong 
tendency  to  become  roans  of  various  shades ;  but  in  certai  ri 
parts,  as  I  hear  from  Dr.  Canfield,  they  are  mostly  duns  an 
striped. '^^ 

In  the  following  chapters  on  the  Pigeon  we  shall  see  that  a 
blue  bird  is  occasionally  produced  by  pure  breeds  of  various 
colours  and  that  when  this  occurs  certain  black  marks  in- 
variably appear  on  the  wings  and  tail ;  so  again,  when  vari- 
ously coloured  breeds  are  crossed,  blue  birds  with  the  same 
black  marks  are  frequently  produced.  We  shall  further  see 
that  these  facts  are  explained  by,  and  afford  strong  evidence 
in  favour  of,  the  view  that  all  the  breeds  are  descended 
from  the  rock-pigeon,  or  Columha  Uvia,  which  is  thus  coloured 
and  marked.  But  the  appearance  of  the  stripes  on  the 
various  breeds  of  the  horse,  when  of  a  dun  colour,  does  not 
alTord  nearly  such  good  evidence  of  their  descent  from  a 
single  primitive  stock  as  in  the  case  of  the  pigeon  :  because 
no  hoise  certainly  wild  is  known  as  a  standard  of  comparison ; 
because  the  stripes  when  they  appear  are  variable  in  cha- 
racter ;  because  there  is  far  from  sufficient  evidence  that  the 
crossing  of  distinct  breeds  produces  stripes,  and  lastly, 
because  all  the  species  of  the  genus  Equus  ha\e  the  spinal 
stripe,  and  several  species  have  shoulder  and  leg  stripes. 
Nevertheless  the  similarity  in  the  most  distinct  breeds  in 
their  general  range  of  colour,  in  their  dappling,  and  in  the 
occasional  appearance,  especially  in  duns,  of  leg-stripes  and 
of  double  or  triple  shoulder- stripes,  taken  together,  indicate 


*'  Azara,   '  Quadnipedos   du  Para-  describes  two  wild  horses  from  IMexico 

guay,'    torn.    ii.    p.    307.      lu    North  as    roaa.      la    the    Falkland    Islands, 

■  America,    Catlin  (vol.    ii.   p.   57)  de-  where  the  horse  has  been  feral  onlv 

scribes   the  wild  horses,   believed    to  between  60  and  70  years,  1  was  told 

have    descended     from     the    Spanish  that  roans   and   iron-grevs  were  the 

horses   of  Mexico,    as   of  all   colours,  prevalent  colours.    These  several  facts 

black,  grey,  roan,  and  roan  pied  with  show  that  horses  do   not  soon  revert 

sorrel.       V.    Michaux    (  '  Travels    in  to  any  uniform  colour. 
North  America,'  Eng.  translat.,  p.  235) 


Chap  II.       ASSES  :    THEIll   COLOUKS   AND   STRIPES.  65 

the  probability  of  the  descent  of  all  the  existing  races  from  a 
single,  dun-coloured,  more  or  less  striped,  primitive  stock,  to 
which  our  horses  occasionally  revert. 

The  Ass. 

Four  species  of  Asses,  besides  three  zebras,  have  been  de- 
scribed by  naturalists.  There  is  now  little  doubt  that  our 
domesticated  animal  is  descended  from  the  Equus  tcBniopus  of 
Abyssinia.*^  The  ass  is  sometimes  advanced  as  an  instance 
of  an  animal  domesticated,  as  we  know  by  the  Old  Testament, 
from  an  ancient  period,  which  has  varied  only  in  a  very  slight 
degree.  But  this  is  by  no  means  strictly  true ;  for  in  Syria 
alone  there  are  four  breeds ;  '^'^  first,  a  light  and  graceful 
animal,  with  an  agreeable  gait,  used  by  ladies ;  secondly, 
an  Arab  breed  reserved  exclusively  for  the  saddle;  thirdly, 
a  stouter  animal  used  for  ploughing  and  various  purposes  ; 
and  lastly,  the  large  Damascus  breed,  with  a  peculiarly  long 
body  and  ears.  In  the  South  of  France  also  there  are  several 
breeds,  and  one  of  extraordinary  size,  some  individuals  being 
as  tall  as  full-sized  horses.  Although  the  ass  in  England  is 
by  no  means  uniform  in  appearance,  distinct  breeds  have  not 
been  formed.  This  may  probably  be  accounted  for  by  the 
animal  being  kept  chiefly  by  poor  persons,  who  do  not  rear 
large  numbers,  nor  carefully  match  and  select  the  young. 
For,  as  we  shall  see  in  a  future  chapter,  the  ass  can  with 
ease  be  greatly  improved  in  size  and  strength  by  careful 
selection,  combined  no  doubt  with  good  food ;  and  we  may 
infer  that  all  its  other  characters  would  be  equally  amend- 
able to  selection.  The  small  size  of  the  ass  in  England  and 
Northern  Europe  is  apparently  due  far  more  to  want  of  care 
in  breeding  than  to  cold ;  for  in  Western  India,  where  the  ass 
is  used  as  a  beast  of  burden  by  some  of  the  lower  castes,  it  is 
not  much  larger  than  a  Newfoundland  dog,  "  being  generally 
not  more  than  from  twenty  to  thirty  inches  high."  *^ 

43  Dr.  Sclater, 'Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,'  ^^  W.  C.  Martin,  'History  of  the 

1862,   p.   164.     Dr.   Hartmann  says  liorse,'  1845,  p.  207. 

('  Annalen  der  Landw.,'  B.  xliv.  p.  ^s  Col.  Sykes'  Cat.  of  Mammalia, 

222)  tliat  this  animal  in  its  wild  state  '  Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,'  July  12th,  1831. 

is    not    always    striped    across    the  Williamson, '  Oriental  Field  Sports,' 

leas.  vol.  ii.,  quoted  by  Martin,  p.  206. 
6 


()6  ASSES :  Chap.  II 

The  ass  varies  greatly  in  colour ;  and  its  legs,  especially 
the  fore-legs,  both  in  England  and  other  countries — for 
instance,  in  China — are  occasionally  barred  more  plainly 
than  those  of  dun-coloured  horses,  Thirteen  or  fourteen 
transverse  stripes  have  been  counted  on  both  the  fore  and 
hind  legs.  With  the  horse  the  occasional  appearance  of  leg- 
stripes  was  accounted  for  by  reversion  to  a  sujoposed  parent- 
form,  and  in  the  case  of  the  ass  we  may  confidently  believe  in 
this  explanation,  as  E.  tcEniopus  is  known  to  be  barred,  though 
only  in  a  slight  degree,  and  not  quite  invariably.  The  stripes 
are  believed  to  occur  most  frequently  and  to  be  plainest  on 
the  legs  of  the  domestic  ass  during  early  youth,*^  as  likewise 
occurs  with  the  horse.  The  shoulder-stripe,  which  is  so  emi 
nently  characteristic  of  the  species,  is  nevertheless  variable 
in  breadth,  length,  and  manner  of  termination.  I  have 
measured  one  four  times  as  broad  as  another,  and  some  more 
than  twice  as  long  as  others.  In  one  light-grey  ass  the 
shoulder-stripe  was  only  six  inches  in  length,  and  as  thin  as 
a  piece  of  string;  and  in  another  animal  of  the  same  colour 
there  was  only  a  dusky  shade  representing  a  stripe.  I  have 
heard  of  three  white  asses,  not  albinoes,  with  no  trace  of 
shoulder  or  spinal  stripes  f"^  and  I  have  seen  nine  other  asses 
with  no  shoulder-stripe,  and  some  of  them  had  no  spinal 
stripe.  Three  of  the  nine  were  light-greys,  one  a  dark-grey, 
another  grey  passing  into  reddish-roan,  and  the  others  were 
brown,  two  being  tinted  on  parts  of  their  bodies  with  a 
reddish  or  bay  shade.  If  therefore  grey  and  reddish-brown 
asses  had  been  steadily  selected  and  bred  from,  the  shoulder 
stripe  would  probably  have  been  lost  almost  as  generally  and 
completely  as  in  the  case  of  the  horse. 

The  shoulder  stripe  on  the  ass  is  sometimes  double,  and 
]Mr.  Blyth  has  seen  even   three  or  four  parallel  stripes.*^     ] 
have  observed  in  ten  cases  shoulder-stripes  abruptly  trun 
cated  at  the  lower  end,  with  the  anterior  angle  produced  into 
a  tapering  point,  precisely  as  in  the  above  dun  Devonshire 

«  Blyth,  in  '  Charlesworth's  Mag.  '  The  Horse,'  p.  205. 

of  Nat.  Hist.,'  vol  iv.,  1840,  p.  83.     I  ''*  '  Journal  As,  Soc.  of  Bengal.'  vol 

lave  also  been  assured  by  a   breeder  xxviii.  1860,  p.  231.     Martin  on  thi' 

that  this  is  the  case.  Horse,  p.  205 

*^  One   case   is   given   by   Martin, 


Chai'.  II.  THEIR   COLOURS    AND    STRIPES.  67 

pony.  1  have  seen  three  cases  of  the  terminal  portion 
abruptly  and  angularly  bent ;  and  ha\  e  seen  and  heard  of 
four  cases  of  a  distinct  though  slight  forking  of  the  stripe. 
In  Syria,  Dr.  Hooker  and  his  party  observed  for  me  no  less 
than  five  similar  instances  of  the  shoulder-stripe  plainly 
bifurcating  over  the  fore  leg.  In  the  common  mule  it  like- 
wise sometimes  bifurcates.  When  I  first  noticed  the  forking 
and  angular  bending  of  the  shoulder-stripe,  I  had  seen  enough 
of  the  stripes  in  the  various  equine  species  to  feel  convinced 
that  even  a  character  so  unimportant  as  this  had  a  distinct 
meaning,  and  was  thus  led  to  attend  to  the  subject.  I  now 
find  that  in  the  E.  hurcJieUii  and  quagga,  the  stripe  which 
corresponds  with  the  shoulder-stripe  of  the  ass,  as  well  as 
some  of  the  stripes  on  the  neck,  bifurcate,  and  that  some  of 
those  near  the  shoulder  have  their  extremities  bent  angularly 
backwards.  The  bifurcation  and  angular  bending  of  the 
stripes  on  the  shoulders  apparently  are  connected  v/ith  the 
nearly  upright  stripes  on  the  sides  of  the  body  and  neck 
changing  their  direction  and  becoming  transverse  on  the  legs. 
Finally,  we  see  that  the  presence  of  shoulder,  leg,  and  spinal 
stripes  in  the  horse, — their  occasional  absence  in  the  ass, — 
the  occurrence  of  double  and  triple  shoulder-stripes  in  both 
animals,  and  the  similar  manner  in  which  these  stripes  ter- 
minate downwards,— are  all  cases  of  analogous  variation  in 
the  horse  and  ass.  These  cases  are  probably  not  due  to 
similar  conditions  acting  on  similar  constitutions,  but  to  a 
partial  reversion  in  colour  to  the  common  progenitor  of  the 
genus.  We  shall  hereafter  return  to  this  subject,  and  discuss 
it  more  fully. 


68  DOMESTIC   PIGS.  Chap.  III. 


CHAPTER  III. 

PIGS — CATTLE SHEEP — GOATS. 

PIGS  BELONG  TO  TWO  DISTINCT  TYPES,  SUS  SCEOFA  AND  INDICUS — TORF' 
SCHW'EIN — JAPAN  PIGS — FERTILITY  OP  CROSSED  PIGS — CHANGES  IN  THE 
SKULL  OF  THE  HIGHLY   CrLTIVATED   RACES — OONYEKGENCE   OF   CHARACTER 

GESTATION—  SOLID-HOOFED  SWINE — CURIOUS   APPENDAGES   TO   THE   JAWS 

DECREASE  IN  SIZE  OF  THE  TUSKS — YOUNG  PIGS  LONGITUDINALLY  STRIPED 

FERAL  PIGS — CROSSED  BREEDS. 

CATTLE. — ZEBU  A  DISTINCT  SPECIES — EUROPE^IN  CATTLE  PROBABLY  DE- 
SCENDED FROM  THREE  WILD  FORMS — ALL  THE  RACES  NOW  FERTILE  TOGETHER 
— BRITISH  PARK  CATTLE — ON  THE  COLOUR  OF  THE  ABORIGINAL  SPECIES — 
CONSTITUTIONAL  DIFFERENCES — SOUTH  AFRICAN  RACES — SOUTH  AMERICAN 
RACES — NIATA  CATTLE — ORIGIN  OP  THE  VARIOUS  RACES  OF  CATTLE. 

SHEEP. — REMARKABLE  RACES  OF — VARIATIONS  ATTACHED  TO  THE  MALE  SEX 
— ADAPTATIONS  TO  VARIOUS  CONDITIONS — GESTATION  OF — CHANGES  IN  THE 
WOOL — SEMI-MONSTROUS  BREEDS. 

GOATS. — REMARKABLE  VARIATIONS  OF. 

The  breeds  of  tlie  pig  liave  recently  "been  more  closely  studied, 
though,  much  still  remains  to  be  done,  than  those  of  almost  any 
other  domesticated  animal.  This  has  been  effected  by  Her- 
mann von  Nathusius  in  two  admirable  works,  especially  in  the 
later  one  on  the  Skulls  of  the  several  races,  and  by  Eiitimeyer 
in  his  celebrated  Fauna  of  the  ancient  Swiss  lake-dwellings.^ 
Xathusius  has  shown  that  all  the  known  breeds  may  be 
divided  into  two  great  groups :  one  resembling  in  all  im- 
portant respects  and  no  doubt  descended  from  the  common 
wild  boar ;  so  that  this  may  be  called  the  Sns  scrofa  group. 
'J.''he  other  group  differs  in  several  important  and  constant 
osteological  characters;  its  wild  parent-form  is  unknown; 
the  name  given  to  it  by  Nathusius,  according  to  the  law  ol 
priority,  is  Sus  indicus,  of  Pallas.  This  name  must  now  be 
followed,  though  an  unfortunate  one,  as  the  wild  aboriginal 

'  Hermann  von  Nathusms,  'Die  'Schwemeschadel,' Berlin,  1864.  Rtiti- 
Racen  des  Schweines,'  Berlin,  1860;  meyer,  '  Die  Fauna  der  Pfahlbauteu, 
and  '  Yorstiidien  fiir  Geschichte,'  &c.,        Basel,  1861. 


Chap.  III.  THEIR   PARENTAGE.  69 

does  not  inhabit  India,  and  tlie   best -known  domesticated 
breeds  have  been  imported  from  Siam  and  China. 

First  for  the  Sus  scrofa  breeds,  or  those  resembling  the 
common  wild  boar.  These  still  exist,  according  to  Nathnsia^ 
(Schweineschadel,  s.  75),  in  various  parts  of  central  and 
northern  Europe ;  formerly  every  kingdom,^  and  almost 
every  province  in  Britain,  possessed  its  own  native  breed ; 
but  these  are  now  everywhere  rapidly  disappearing,  being 
replaced  by  im^oroved  breeds  crossed  with  the  >S^.  indicus 
form.  The  skull  in  the  breeds  of  the  S.  scrofa  type  re- 
sembles, in  all  important  respects,  that  of  tlie  European  wild 
boar;  but  it  has  become  (Schweineschadel,  s.  63-68)  higher 
and  broader  relatively  to  its  length ;  and  the  hinder  part  is 
more  upright.  The  differences,  however,  are  all  variable  in 
degree.  The  breeds  which  thus  resemble  >S^.  scrofa  in  their 
essential  skull  characters  differ  conspicuously  from  each  other 
in  other  respects,  as  in  the  length  of  the  ears  and  legs,  cur- 
vature of  the  ribs,  colour,  hairiness,  size  and  proportions  of 
the  body. 

The  wild  Sus  scrofa  has  a  wide  range,  namely,  Europe, 
North  Africa,  as  identified  by  osteological  characters  by  Eii  ti- 
meyer,  and  Hindostan,  as  similiarly  identified  by  Nathusius. 
But  the  wild  boars  inhabiting  these  several  countries  differ 
so  much  from  each  other  in  external  characters,  that  they  have 
been  ranked  by  some  naturalists  as  specifically  distinct.  Even 
within  Hindostan  these  animals,  according  to  Mr.  Blyth, 
form  very  distinct  races  in  the  different  districts  ;  in  the  N. 
Western  provinces,  as  I  am  informed  by  the  Rev.  E.  Everest, 
the  boar  never  exceeds  36  inches  in  height,  whilst  in  Bengal 
one  has  been  measured  44  inches  in  height.  In  Europe, 
Northern  Africa,  and  Hindostan,  domestic  pigs  have  been 
known   to    cross   with    the    wild    nati^'e    species  f     and    in 

*  Nathusius,      '  Die      Racen      des  published  on  the  fertility  of  the  off- 

Schweiues,'  Berlin,  1860.     An  excel-  spring    from  wild    and    tame   swine, 

lent  appendix  is  given  with  references  see Burdach's 'Physiology,' and Godron 

to  published  and  trustworthy  draw-  '  De   I'Espece,'  tom.    i.  p.   370.     For 

ings  of  the  breeds  of  each  country.  Africa,  '  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  dAcclimat.,' 

'  For  Europe,  see  Bechstein,  '  Na-  tom.  iv.  p.  389.     For  India,  see  Kathu- 

turgesch.  Deutschlands,'  1801,  B.  i.,  s.  sins,  'Schweineschadel,'  s.  148. 
505.      Several    accounts    have    been 


70  DOMESTIC    PIGS.  Ckap.  Ill 

Hindostan  an  accurate  observer,^  Sir  Walter  Elliot,  after 
describing  the  differences  between  wild  Indian  and  wild 
German  boars,  remarks  that  "  the  same  differences  are  per- 
ceptible in  the  domesticated  individuals  of  the  two  countries." 
We  may  therefore  conclude  that  the  breeds  of  the  Sus  scrofa 
type  are  descended  from,  or  have  been  modified  by  crossing 
with,  forms  which  may  be  ranked  as  geographical  races,  but 
which,  according  to  some  naturalists,  ought  to  be  ranked  as 
distinct  species. 

Pigs  of  the  Sus  indicus  type  are  best  known  to  Englishmen 
under  the  form  of  the  Chinese  breed.  The  skull  of  S.  indicus, 
as  described  by  Nathusius,  differs  from  that  of  >S^.  scrofa  in 
several  minor  respects,  as  in  its  greater  breadth  and  in  some 
details  in  the  teeth ;  but  chiefly  in  the  shortness  of  the  lachry- 
mal bones,  in  the  greater  width  of  the  fore  part  of  the  palate- 
bones,  and  in  the  divergence  of  the  premolar  teeth.  It 
deserves  especial  notice  that  these  latter  characters  are  not 
gained,  even  in  the  least  degree,  b}^  the  domesticated  forms 
of  S.  scrofa.  After  reading  the  remarks  and  descriptions 
given  by  Kathusius,  it  seems  to  me  to  be  merely  playing 
with  words  to  doubt  whether  S.  indicus  ought  to  be  ranked 
as  a  species ;  for  the  above-specified  differences  are  more 
strongly  marked  than  any  that  can  be  pointed  out  between, 
for  instance,  the  fox  and  the  wolf,  or  the  ass  and  the  horse. 
As  already  stated,  S.  indicus  is  not  knoT^m  in  a  wild  state ; 
but  its  domesticated  forms,  according  to  Kathusius,  come 
near  to  S.  vittatus  of  Java  and  some  allied  species.  A  pig 
found  wild  in  the  Aru  islands  (Schweineschadel,  s.  169)  is 
apparently  identical  with  >S^.  indicus:  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  this  is  a  truly  native  animal.  The  domesticated 
breeds  of  China,  Cochin-China,  and  Siam  belong  to  this  type. 
The  Eoman  or  Neapolitan  breed,  the  Andalusian,  the  Hun- 
garian, and  the  "  Krause  "  swine  of  Kathusius,  inhabiting 
south-eastern  Europe  and  Turkey,  and  having  fine  curly  hair, 
and  the  small  Swiss  "  Biindtnerschwein "  of  Elltimeyer,  all 
agree  in  their  more  important  skull-characters  with  S.  indicus^ 
and,  as  is  supposed,  have  all  been  largely  crossed  with  thii3 

*  Sir  W.  Elliot,  Catalogue  of  Mammalia, '  Madras  Journal  of  Lit.  and  Science.' 
vol,  X.  p.  219. 


Chap.  III.  THEIE   VARIATION.  71 

form.  Pigs  of  this  type  liave  existed  during  a  long  period 
on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  for  a  figure  (Schweine- 
schadel,  s.  142)  closely  resembling  the  existing  Neapolitan  pig 
was  found  in  the  buried  city  of  Herculaneum. 

Eiitimeyer  has  made  the  remarkable  discovery  that  there 
lived  contemporaneously  in  Switzerland,  during  the  Neo- 
lithic period,  two  domesticated  forms,  the  S.  scroft,  and  the 
S.  scrofa  palustris  or  'J  orfschwein.  Eiitimeyer  perceived  that 
the  latter  approached  the  Eastern  breeds,  and,  according  to 
Nathusius,  it  certainly  belongs  to  the  S.  indicus  group ;  but 
Eiitimeyer  has  subsequently  shown  that  it  differs  in  some 
well-marked  characters.  This  author  was  formerly  convinced 
that  his  Torfschwein  existed  as  a  wild  animal  during  the 
first  part  of  the  Stone  period,  and  was  domesticated  during 
a  later  part  of  the  same  period.^  Nathusius,  whilst  he  fully 
admits  the  curious  fact  first  observed  by  Eiitimeyer,  that  the 
bones  of  domesticated  and  wild  animals  can  be  distinguished 
by  their  different  aspect,  yet,  from  special  difficulties  in  the 
case  of  the  bones  of  the  pig  (Schwcineschadel,  s.  147),  is  not 
convinced  of  the  truth  of  the  above  conclusion  ;  and  Eiitimeyer 
himself  seems  now  to  feel  some  doubt.  Other  naturalists 
have  also  argued  strongly  on  the  same  side  as  Nathusius.*" 

Several  breeds,  differing  in  the  proportions  of  the  body,  in 
the  length  of  the  ears,  in  the  nature  of  the  hair,  in  colour,  Sec, 
come  under  the  S.  indicus  type.  Kor  is  this  surprising,  con- 
sidering how  ancient  the  domestication  of  this  form  has  been 
both  in  Europe  and  in  China.  Jn  this  latter  country  the 
date  is  believed  by  an  eminent  Chinese  scholar  "^  to  go  back 
at  least  4900  years  from  the  present  time.  This  same  scholar 
alludes  to  the  existence  of  many  local  varieties  of  the  pig  in 
China ;  and  at  the  present  time  the  Chinese  take  extraordi- 
nary pains  in  feeding  and  tending  their  pigs,  not  even 
allowing  them  to  walk  from  place  to  place. ^  Hence  these 
pigs,  as  Nathusius  has  remarked,^  display  in  an  eminent  degree 

*  '  PfahlbaiTten,'  s.  163,  et  passim.  ^  Stan.  Julien,  quoted  by  de  Blain- 

^  (St^eJ.W.Schutz' interesting  essay,  ville,  '  Osteographie,'  p.  163, 

Zur    Kenntniss    des    Torfschweins,'  ^  Eichardson,  '  Pigs,   their  Origin,' 

1868.     This  author  believes  that  the  &c.,  p.  26. 

Torfschwein     is     descended    from    a  ^  '  Die  Racen  des  Schweines,'  s.  47, 

distinct  species,  the  S.  senncaiensis  of  64 
Central  Africa. 


72  DOMESTIC   PIGS.  Chap.  Ill 

the  characters  of  a  highly  -  cultivated  race,  and  hence,  no 
doubt,  their  high  value  in  the  improvement  of  our  European 
breeds.  Nathusius  makes  a  remarkable  statement  (Schweine- 
gchadel,  s.  138),  that  the  infusion  of  the  ^^''^d,  or  even  of  the 
j^^th,  part  of  the  blood  of  S.  indicus  into  a  breed  of  >S'.  scrofa, 
is  sufficient  plainly  to  modify  the  skull  of  the  latter  species. 
This  singular  fact  may  perhaps  be  accounted  for  by  several 
of  the  chief  distinctive  characters  of  S.  indicus,  such  as  the 
shortness  of  the  lachrymal  bones,  &c.,  being  common  to 
several  species  of  the  genus ;  for  in  crosses  characters  which 
are  common  to  many  species  apparently  tend  to  be  prepotent 
over  those  appertaining  to  only  a  few  species. 

The  Japan  pig  (S.  pliciceps  of  Gray),  which  was  formerly 
exhibited  in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  has  an  extraordinary 
appearance  from  its  short  head,  broad  forehead  and  nose, 
great  fleshy  ears,  and  deeply  furrowed  skin.  The  following 
woodcut  is  copied  from  that  given  by  Mr.  Bartlett.^"  Kot 
only  is  the  face  furrowed,  but  thick  folds  of  skin,  which  are 
harder  than  the  other  parts,  almost  like  the  plates  on  the 
Indian  rhinoceros,  hang  about  the  shoulders  and  rump.  It 
is  coloured  black,  with  white  feet,  and  breeds  true.  That  it 
has  long  been  domesticated  there  can  be  little  doubt ;  and 
this  might  have  been  inferred  even  from  the  fact  that  its 
young  are  not  longitudinally  striped ;  for  this  is  a  character 
common  to  all  the  species  included  within  the  genus  Sus  and 
the  allied  genera  whilst  in  their  natural  state.^^  Dr.  Gray  ^^ 
has  described  the  skull  of  this  animal,  which  he  ranks  not 
only  as  a  distinct  species,  but  places  it  in  a  distinct  section 
of  the  genus.  Nathusius,  however,  after  his  careful  study  of 
the  whole  group,  states  positively  (Schweineschadel,  s.  153- 
]  58)  that  the  skull  in  all  essential  characters  closely  resembles 
that  of  the  short-eared  Chinese  breed  of  the  S.  indicus  type. 
Hence  Nathusius  considers  the  Japan  pig  as  only  a  domesti- 
cated variety  of  S.  indicus :  if  this  really  be  the  case,  it  is  a 

"  'Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,'186l,  p.  263.  in    a    very    interesting   essay,    '  Der 

"  Sclater,  in  '  Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,'  Schadel  des  ]\Iaskensch\veines/  1870. 

Feb.  26th    1861.  He   confirms    the   conclusion    of  vcu 

12  <  Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,'  1862,  p.  13.  Nathusius  on  the  relationship  of  this 

The  skull  has    since    been    described  kind  of  pig. 

cuich  more  fully  by  Professor  Lucae 


Chap.  III. 


THEIR   VARIATION. 


3 


wonderful  instance  of  tlie  amount  of  modification  wliich  can 
be  effected  under  domestication. 

Formerly  there  existed  in  the  central  islands  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean  a  singular  breed  of  pigs.  These  are  described  by  the 
Eev.  D.  Tyerman  and  G.  Bennett  ^^  as  of  small  size,  hump- 
backed, with  a  disproportionately  long  head,  with  short  ears 


Fig.  2.— Head  of  Japan  or  Masked  Fig.    (Coplt  d  from  Mr.  Bartktt's  paper  in  '  Proc.  Zoolog. 

Soc'  1861,  p.  263.) 

turned  backwards,  with  a  bushy  tail  not  more  than  two  inches 
in  lengih,  placed  as  if  it  grew  from  the  back.  Within  half  a 
century  after  the  introduction  of  European  and  Chinese  pigs 
into  these  islands,  the  native  breed,  according  to  the  above 
authors,  became  almost  completely  lost  by  being  repeatedly 
crossed  with  them.     Secluded  islands,  as  might  have  been 

^2  '  Journal  of  Voyages  and  Travels  from  1821  to  1829/  vol.  i.  p.  300. 


74  DOMESTIC   PIGS.  Ciiap.  III. 

expected,  seem  favourable  for  tlie  production  or  retention  of 
peculiar  breeds ;  tbus,  in  the  Orkney  Islands,  the  hogs  have 
been  described  as  very  small,  with  erect  and  sharp  ears,  and 
"  with  an  appearance  altogether  different  from  tlie  hogs 
brought  from  the  south."  ^* 

Seeing  how  different  the  Chinese  pigs,  /)elonging  to  the 
Sas  indicus  type,  are  in  their  osteological  characters  and  in 
external  appearance  from  the  pigs  of  the  S.  scrofa  type,  so 
that  they  must  be  considered  specifically  distinct,  it  is  a  fact 
well  deserving  attention,  that  Chinese  and  common  pigs 
have  been  repeatedly  crossed  in  various  manners,  with  un- 
impaired fertility.  One  great  breeder  who  had  used  pure 
Chinese  pigs  assured  me  that  the  fertility  of  the  half-breeds 
inter  se  and  of  their  recrossed  progeny  was  actually  increased ; 
and  this  is  the  general  belief  of  agriculturists.  Again,  the 
Japan  pig  or  S.  ])liciceps  of  Gray  is  so  distinct  in  appearance 
from  all  common  pigs,  that  it  stretches  one's  belief  to  the 
utmost  to  admit  that  it  is  simply  a  domestic  variety ;  yet 
this  breed  has  been  found  perfectly  fertile  with  the  Berkshire 
breed ;  and  Mr.  Eyton  informs  me  that  he  paired  a  half-bred 
brother  and  sister  and  found  them  quite  fertile  together. 

The  modification  of  the  skull  in  the  most  highly  cultivated 
races  is  wonderful.  To  appreciate  the  amount  of  change, 
Nathusius'  work,  with  its  excellent  figures,  should  be  studied. 
The  whole  of  the  exterior  in  all  its  parts  has  been  altered  : 
the  hinder  surface,  instead  of  sloping  backwards,  is  directed 
forwards,  entailing  many  changes  in  other  parts ;  the  front 
of  the  head  is  deeply  concave :  the  orbits  have  a  different 
shape;  the  auditory  meatus  has  a  different  direction  and 
shape  ;  the  incisors  of  the  upper  and  lower  jaws  do  not  touch 
each  other,  and  they  stand  in  both  jaws  beyond  the  plane  of 
the  molars  ;  the  caninos  of  the  upper  jaw  stand  in  front  of 
those  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  this  is  a  remarkable  anomaly : 
the  articular  surfaces  of  the  occipital  condyles  are  so  greatly 
changed  in  shape,  that,  as  Nathusius  remarks  (s.  133),  no 
naturalist,  seeing  this  important  part  of  the  skull  by  itself, 
would  suppose  that  it  belonged  to  the  genus  Sus.     These 

1*  Eev.  Gr,  Low,  'Fauna  Orcadensis,'  p.  10.  See  also  Dr.  Hibbert's  account 
of  the  pig  of  the  Shetland  Islands. 


CUAP.  III. 


THEIE   VARIATION. 


75 


and  various  other  modifications,  as  Nathusius  observes,  can 
hardly  be  considered  as  monstrosities,  for  they  are  not  in- 
jurious, and  are  strictly  inherited.  The  whole  head  is  much 
shortened ;  thus,  whilst  in  common  breeds  its  length  to  that 
of  the  body  is  as  1  to  6, 
in  the  "  cultur-racen  " 
the  proportion  is  as  1 
to  9,  and  even  recently 
as  1  to  n.i^  The  fol- 
lowing woodcut  ^^  of  the 
head  of  a  wild  boar  and 
of  a  sow  from  a  photo- 
graph of  the  Yorkshire 
Large  Breed,  may  aid 
in  showing  how  greatly 
the  head  in  a  highly 
cultivated  race  has  been 
modified  and  shortened. 
Nathusius  has  well 
discussed  the  causes  of 
the  remarkable  chang-es 
in  the  skull  and  shape 
of  the  body  which  the 
highly  cultivated  races 
have  undergone.  These 
modifications  occur 
chiefly  in  the  pure  and 
crossed  races  of  the  S. 
indicus  tyjDC  ;  but  their 
commencement  may 
be  clearly  detected  in 
the   slightly   improved 

breeds    of    the   S.    SCrofa    Fi?.  3 -Head  of  Wild  Hoar,  and  of  "Gold  n  Days,- a 

tvPe.^^  Nathusius  ^ta+PQ  ^^^  ^^  *^^  ^""^^^  ^^"'^  '^^^'S'  ^^^^'^  5  the  latter  fn,m  a 
tj|jc.^  x>ctUiUblUbSXaTes  phoiosraph.  (Copied  fio.n  Sidney's  edit,  of  'The 
positively    (s.    99,   103),        P'g.' by  Youa.t.) 

as  the  result  of  common  experience  and  of  his  experiments, 

Is  )rP'*^  ■^^^^^  ^^^  Schweines,'  s.  70        excellent    edition    of    '  The    Pi^.'    by 
These  woodcuts  are  copied  from        Youatt,  1860.     See  pp.  1,  16,  19. 

*^  '  Schweineschadel,'  s.  74,  135. 


engravings  given  in  Mr.  S.  Sidney's 


7Q  DOMESTIC   PIGS.  •       Chap.  II L 

that  rich  and  abundant  food,  given  during  youth,  tends  by 
some  direct  action  to  make  the  head  broader  and  shorter; 
and  that  poor  food  works  a  contrary  result.  He  lays  much 
stress  on  the  fact  that  all  wild  and  semi-domesticated  pigs, 
in  ploughing  up  the  ground  with  their  muzzles,  have, 
whilst  young,  to  exert  the  powerful  muscles  fixed  to  the 
Jiinder  part  of  the  head.  In  highly  cultivated  races  this 
habit  is  no  longer  followed,  and  consequently  the  back  of 
the  skull  becomes  modified  in  shape,  entailing  other  changes 
in  other  parts.  There  can  hardly  be  a  doubt  that  so  great 
a  change  in  habits  would  affect  the  skull ;  but  it  seems 
rather  doubtful  how  far  this  will  account  for  the  greatly 
reduced  length  of  the  skull  and  for  its  concave  front.  It  is 
well  known  (Nathusius  himself  advancing  many  cases, 
s.  104)  that  there  is  a  strong  tendency  in  many  domestic 
animals  —  in  bull-  and  pug-dogs,  in  the  niata  cattle,  in 
sheep,  in  Polish  fowls,  short-faced  tumbler  pigeons,  and  in 
one  variety  of  the  carp — for  the  bones  of  the  face  to  become 
greatly  shortened.  In  the  case  of  the  dog,  as  H.  Miiller  has 
shown,  this  seems  caused  by  an  abnormal  state  of  the  pri- 
mordial cartilage.  We  may,  however,  readily  admit  that 
abundant  and  rich  food  supplied  during  many  generations 
would  give  an  inherited  tendency  to  increased  size  of  body, 
and  that,  from  disuse,  the  limbs  would  become  finer  and 
shorter.^^  We  shall  in  a  future  chapter  see  also  that  the 
skull  and  limbs  are  apparently  in  some  manner  correlated, 
so  that  any  change  in  the  one  tends  to  affect  the  other. 

Nathusius  has  remarked,  and  the  observation  is  an  in- 
teresting one,  that  the  peculiar  form  of  the  skull  and  body 
in  the  most  highly  cultivated  races  is  not  characteristic  of 
any  one  race,  but  is  common  to  all  when  improved  up  to  the 
same  standard.  Thus  the  large-bodied,  long-eared,  English 
breeds  with  a  convex  back,  and  the  small-bodied,  short-eared, 
Chinese  breeds  with  a  concave  back,  when  bred  to  the  same 
state  of  perfection,  nearly  resemble  each  other  in  the  form 
of  the  head  and  body.  This  result,  it  appears,  is  partly  due 
to  similar  causes  of  change  acting  on  the  several  races,  and 

'•  Nathusius,  '  Die  Racen  des  Schweines,'  s.  71. 


CiiAi'.  III.  THEIR   VAHIATION.  77 

partly  to  man  Lreeding  the  pig  for  one  sole  purpose,  namely, 
for  the  greatest  amount  of  flesh  and  fat ;  so  that  selection  has 
always  tended  towards  one  and  the  same  end.  With  most 
domestic  animals  the  result  of  selection  has  been  divergence 
of  character,  here  it  has  been  convergence.^^ 

The  nature  of  the  food  supplied  during  many  generations 
has  apparently  affected  the  length  of  the  intestines ;  for, 
according  to  Cuvier,^^  their  length  to  that  of  the  body  in 
the  wild  boar  is  as  9  to  1, — in  the  common  domestic  boar  as 
13*5  to  1, — and  in  the  Siam  breed  as  16  to  1.  In  this  latter 
breed  the  greater  length  may  be  due  either  to  descent  from  a 
distinct  species  or  to  more  ancient  domestication.  The  number 
of  mammae  varj^  as  does  the  period  of  gestation.  I'he  latest 
authority  says '^^  that  "the  period  averages  from  17  to  20 
weeks,"  but  1  think  there  must  be  some  error  in  this  state- 
ment :  in  M.  Tessier's  observations  on  25  sows  it  varied  from 
109  to  123  days.  The  Rev.  W.  D.  Fox  has  given  me  ten 
carefully  recorded  cases  with  well-bred  pigs,  in  which  the 
period  varied  from  101  to  116  days.  According  to  Nathusius 
the  period  is  shortest  in  the  races  which  come  early  to  ma- 
turity ;  but  the  course  of  their  development  does  not  appear 
to  be  actually  shortened,  for  the  young  animal  is  born, 
judging  from  the  state  of  the  skull,  less  fully  developed,  or 
in  a  more  embryonic  condition,^^  than  in  the  case  of  common 
swine.  In  the  highly  cultivated  and  early  matured  races 
the  teeth,  also,  are  developed  earlier. 

The  difference  in  the  number  of  the  vertebrae  and  ribs  in 
different  kinds  of  pigs,  as  observed  by  Mr.  Eyton,^^  and  as 
given  in  the  following  table,  has  often  been  quoted.  The 
African  sow  probably  belongs  to  the  S.  scrofa  type ;  and  Mr. 

^^  *  Die  Raceu  des  Schweines,'  s.  47.  have  been  lost.    I  have  added  together 

'  Schweiaeschadel,'  s.  104.     Compare,  the  dorsal  and  lumbar  vertebrae,  owing 

also,  the  figures  of  the  old  Irish  and  to    Prof.    Owen's    remarks  ('Journal 

the  improved  Irish  breeds  in  Richard-  Linn.  Soc.  vol.  ii.  p.  28)  on  the  differ- 

son  on  '  The  Pig,'  1847.  ence     between    dorsal     and     lumbar 

2°  Quoted  by  Isid.  Geoffroy,  '  Hist.  vertebrae     depending     only    on     the 

Nat.  Gen.,'  torn.  iii.  p  441.  development  of  the  ribs.    Nevertheless 

2^  S.  Sidney,  'The  Pig,'  p.  61.  the  difference  in   the  number  of  the 

'^-  '  Schweineschadel,'  s.  2,  20.  ribs    in    pigs    deserves    notice.       M. 

2^  '  Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,'  1837,  p.  23.  Sanson  gives   the  number  of  lumbar 

1  have  not  given  the  caudal  vertebrae,  vertebrae  m  various   pigs  ;  '  Comjites 

as  Mr.  Evton  says  some  might  possibly  Rendus,'  Ixiii.  p.  843. 


78 


DOMESTIC   PIGS. 


Chap.  Ill 


Eyton  informs  me  that,  since  the  publication  of  this  paper, 
cross-bred  animals  from  the  African  and  English  races  were 
found  by  Lord  Hill  to  be  perfectly  fertile. 


English 

Long-legged 

Male. 


Dorsal  vertebrae    .. 

Lumbar 

Dorsal  and  lumbar  1 
together   . .      . .  / 

Sacral     

Total  number  of 
vertebrae 


French 

A  fi  ican 

Chinese 

Wild  Boar 

Domestic 

Female. 

Male. 

from  Cuvier. 

Boar,  from 
Cuvier. 

24 


2H 


23 


13 

15 

H 

14 

H 

4 

5 

5 

19 

19 

li> 

19 

5 

4 

4 

4 

23 


Some  semi-monstrous  breeds  deserve  notice.  From  the 
time  of  Aristotle  to  the  present  time  solid-hoofed  swine  have 
occasionally  been  observed  in  various  parts  of  the  world. 
Although  this  peculiarity  is  strongly  inherited,  it  is  hardly 
probable  that  all  the  animals  with  solid  hoofs  have  descended 
from  the  same  parents ;  it  is  more  probable  that  the  same 
peculiarity  has  reappeared  at  various  times  and  places.  Dr. 
iStruthers  has  lately  described  and  figured^*  the  structure 
of  the  feet ;  in  both  front  and  hind  feet  the  distal  phalanges 
of  the  two  greater  toes  are  represented  by  a  single,  great, 
hoof-bearing  phalanx ;  and  in  the  front  feet,  the  middle 
phalanges  are  represented  by  a  bone  which  is  single  towards 
the  lower  end,  but  bears  two  separate  articulations  towards 
the  up]3er  end.  From  other  accounts  it  appears  that  an 
intermediate  toe  is  likewise  sometimes  superadded. 

Another  curious  anomaly  is  offered  by  the  appendages, 
described  by  M.  Eudes-Deslongchamps  as  often  characterizing 
the  Normandy  pigs.  These  appendages  are  always  attached 
to  the  same  spot,  to  the  corners  of  the  jaw ;  they  are  cylin- 


'*  'Edinburgh      Kew      Philosoph.       Blainville's  *  Osteographie,' p.  128,  foi 
Journal,'  April,   1863.     See  also   De       various  authorities  ou  this  subject. 


Chap.  Ill 


THEIK   VARIATION. 


79 


drical,  about  three  inches  in  length,  covered  with  bristles, 
and  with  a  pencil  of  bristles  rising  out  of  a  sinus'  on  one 
side :  they  have  a  cartilaginous  centre,  with  two  small  longi- 
tudinal muscles :  they  occur  either  symmetrically  on  both 
sides  of  the  face  or  on  one  side  alone.  Eichardson  figures 
them  on  the  gaunt  old  "  Irish  Greyhound  pig;  "  and  I^athu- 
sius  states  that  they  occasionally  appear  in  all  the  long  eared 


Fig.  4.— Old  Irish  Pig,  with  jiw-appenriog  s.     (Copied  from  H.  D.  Eichardson  on  Pigs.'i 

races,  but  are  not  strictly  inherited,  for  they  occur  or  fail  in 
animals  of  the  yame  litter.^^  As  no  wild  pigs  are  known  to 
have  analogous  appendages,  we  have  at  present  no  reason  to 
suppose  that  their  appearance  is  due  to  reversion ;  and  if 
this  be  so,  we  aie  forced  to  admit  that  a  somewhat  com- 
plex, though  apparently  useless,  structure  may  be  suddenly 
developed  without  the  aid  of  selection. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  boars  of  all  domesticated 
breeds  have  much  shorter  tusks  than  wild  boars.  Many  facts 
show  that  with  many  animals  the  state  of  the  hair  is  much 
aifected  by  exposure  to,  or  protection  from,  climate ;  and  as 
we  see  that  the  state  of  the  hair  and  teeth  are  correlated  in 
Turkish  dogs  (pother  analogous  facts  will  be  hereafter  given), 
may  we  not  venture  to  surmise  that  the  reduction  of  the  tusks 

25  Eudes  Ueslongchamps,  '  Me  -  '  Pigs,  their  Origin,  &c.,*  1847,  p.  30 
moires  de  la  Soc.  Linn,  de  Normandie,'  Nathusius,  '  Die  Raceudes  Schweines,' 
vol.  vii.,    1842,   p.    41.     Richardson.        1863,  ?.  54. 


80  DOMESTIC   PIGS.  Cuar  III, 

in  the  domestic  boar  is  related  to  liis  coat  of  bristles  being 
diminished  from  living  under  shelter  ?  On  the  other  hand, 
as  we  shall  immediately  see,  the  tusks  and  bristles  reappear 
with  feral  boars,  which  are  no  longer  protected  from  the 
weather.  It  is  not  surprising  that  the  tusks  should  be  more 
affected  than  the  other  teeth ;  as  parts  developed  to  serve 
as  secondary  sexual  characters  are  always  liable  to  much 
variation. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  young  of  wild  European 
and  Indian  pigs,"^^  for  the  first  six  months,  are  longitudinally 
banded  with  light-coloured  stripes.  This  character  generally 
disappears  under  domestication.  The  Turkish  domestic  pigs, 
howuver,  have  striped  yonng,'  as  have  those  of  Westphalia, 
"  whatever  may  be  their  hue  ; "  ^^  whether  these  latter  pigs 
belong  to  the  same  curly  haired  race  as  the  Turkish  swine, 
I  do  not  know.  The  pigs  which  have  run  wild  in  Jamaica 
and  the  semi-feral  pigs  of  New  Granada,  both  those  which 
are  black  and  those  which  are  black  with  a  white  band  across 
the  stomach,  often  extending  over  the  back,  have  resumed 
this  aboriginal  character  and  produce  longitudinally-striped 
young.  This  is  likewise  the  case,  at  least  occasionally,  with 
the  neglected  pigs  in  the  Zambesi  settlement  on  the  coast  oi 
Africa.^* 

^^  D,  Johasoa's  '  Sketches  of  Indian  Hamilton   Smith,   in   '  Nat.   Library, 

Field  Sports,'  p.  272.     Mr.  Crawfurd  vol.  ix.  p.  9'_(.     With  respect  to  Africa 

informs  me  that  the  same  fact  holds  see  Livingstone's  '  Expedition  to  the 

good  with  the  wild  pigs  of  the  Malay  Zambesi,'    18G5,    p.    153.     The    most 

peninsula.  precise  statement  with  respect  to  the 

2^  For  Turkish  pigs,  see  Desmarest,  tusks  of  the  West  Indian  feral  boars  is 

'  Mammalogie,'    1820,   p.    391.      For  by  P.  Labat  (quoted  by  Roulin)  ;  but 

those  of  Westphalia,  see  Richardson's  this  author   attributes    the   state    of 

'Pigs,  their  Origin,  &c.,'  1847,  p.  41.  these  pigs  to  descent  from  a  domes-tic 

2^  With  respect  to  the  several  fore-  stock  which  he  saw  in  Spain.  Admiral 

going    and    following   statements    on  Sulivan,R.>r.,  had  ample  opportunities 

feral  pigs,  sre  Roulin,  in  '  JNIem.  pre-  of  observing  the  wild  pigs  on  Eagle 

sentes    par  divers  Savans  a.  I'Acad.,'  Islet  in  the  Falklands  ;  and  he  informs 

&c.,  Paris,  torn.  vi.  1835,  p.  326.      Jt  me   that  they   resembled  wild   boars 

should  be  observed  that  his  account  with   bristly  ridged  backs  and   large 

does   not   apply  to  truly  feral  pigs ;  tusks.     The  pigs  which  have  run  wild 

but  to  pigs  long  introduced  into  the  in    the    province    of    Buenos   Ayres 

country    and    living    in    a    half-wild  (Rengger,  '  Saugethiere,' s.  331)  have 

state.     For  the    tiuly   feral    pig-    of  not  reverted  to   the  wild  type.     Do 

Jamaica,    see    Gosse's    'Sojourn     in  Blainville     (' Osteographie,'    p.    132) 

Jamaica,'    1851,    p.    380;    and    Col  refers  to  two  skulls  of  domestic  pigs 


CiUP.  III.  THEIR    CHAEACTER   WHEN   FERAL.  81 

The  common  belief  that  all  domesticated  animals,  when 
they  run  wild,  revert  completely  to  the  character  of  their 
parent-stock,  is  chiefly  founded,  as  far  as  I  can  discover,  on 
feral  pigs.  But  even  in  this  case  the  belief  is  not  grounded 
on  suflicient  evidence;  for  the  two  main  types,  namely,  S, 
scrofa  and  indicus,  have  not  been  distinguished.  The  young, 
as  we  have  just  seen,  reacquire  their  longitudinal  stripes,  and 
the  boars  invariably  reassume  their  tasks.  They  revert  also 
in  ihe  general  shape  of  their  bodies,  and  in  the  length  of 
their  legs  and  muzzles,  to  the  state  of  the  wild  animal,  as 
might  have  been  expected  from  the  amount  of  exercise  wliich 
they  are  compelled  to  take  in  search  of  food.  In  Jamaica  the 
feral  pigs  do  not  ac(|uire  the  full  size  of  the  European  wild 
boar,  "  never  attaining  a  greater  height  than  20  inches  at  the 
shoulder."  In  various  countries  they  reassume  their  original 
bristly  covering,  but  in  different  degrees,  dependent  on  the 
climate ;  thus,  according  to  Eoulin,  the  semi-feral  pigs  in 
the  hot  valleys  of  New  Granada  are  very  scantily  clothed ; 
whereas,  on  the  Paramos,  at  the  height  of  7000  to  8000  feet, 
they  acquire  a  thick  covering  of  wool  lying  under  the 
bristles,  like  that  on  the  truly  wild  pigs  of  France.  These 
pigs  on  the  Paramos  are  small  and  stunted.  The  wild  boar 
of  India  is  said  to  have  the  bristles  at  the  end  of  its  tail 
arrnnged  like  the  plumes  of  an  arrow,  whilst  the  European 
boar  has  a  simple  tuft ;  and  it  is  a  curious  fact  that  many, 
but  not  all,  of  the  feral  pigs  in  Jamaica,  derived  from  a 
Spanish  stock,  have  a  plumed  tail.^^  With  respect  to  colour, 
feral  pigs  generally  revert  to  that  of  the  wild  boar ;  but  in 
certain  parts  of  S.  America,  as  we  have  seen,  some  of  tho 
semi-feral  pigs  have  a  curious  white  band  across  their 
stomachs ;  and  in  certain  other  hot  places  the  j)igs  are  red, 
and  this  colour  has  likewise  occasionally  been  observed  in 


sentfiom  Patagonia  by  Al.  d'Orbigny,  lier,  mais  il  est  presque  tout  noir,  ok 

iiud    he    states    that    they    have    the  peut-etre  un  peu  plus  ramasse   dans 

ocdpital  elevation  of  the  wild  Eiaropean  ses  formes." 

boar,  but  that  the  head  altogether  is  ^^  Gosse's  '  Jamaica,'  p.  386,  with  a 

"  plus  courte  et  plus  ramassee."     He  quotation  from  Williamson's  '  Oriental 

refers,  also,  to  the  skiii  of  a  feral  pig  Field    Sports.'      Also    Col.    Hamiltoij 

from    North   America,  and  says,  "il  Smith,   in  'Naturalist  Library,'  vol 

ressemble  tout  a  fait  a  un  petit  sang-  ix.  p.  04. 


82  CATTLE.  Chap.  IIL 

the  feral  pigs  of  Jamaica.  From  these  several  facts  we  see 
that  with  pigs  when  feral  there  is  a  strong  tendency  to 
revert  to  the  wild  type ;  but  that  this  tendency  is  largely 
governed  by  the  nature  of  the  climate,  amount  of  exercise, 
and  other  causes  of  change  to  which  they  have  been 
subjwted. 

The  last  point  worth  notice  is  that  we  have  unusually  good 
evidence  of  breeds  of  pigs  now  keeping  perfectly  true,  which 
have  been  formed  by  the  crossing  of  several  distinct  breeds. 
The  Imp3:oved  Essex  pigs,  for  instance,  breed  very  true ;  but 
thei'e  is  no  doubt  that  they  largely  owe  their  present  excellent 
qualities  to  crosses  originally  made  by  Lord  Western  with  tho 
Neapolitan  race,  and  to  subsequent  crosses  with  the  Berkshire 
breed  (this  also  having  been  improved  by  Neapolitan  crosses), 
and  likewise,  probably,  with  the  Sussex  breed. ^°  In  breeds 
thus  formed  by  complex  crosses,  the  most  careful  and  unre- 
mitting selection  during  many  generations  has  been  found  to  be 
indispensable.  Chiefly  in  consequence  of  so  much  crossing, 
some  well-known  breeds  have  undergone  rapid  changes  ;  thus, 
according  to  Nathusius,^^  the  Berkshire  breed  of  1780  is  quite 
different  from  that  of  1810  ;  and,  since  this  latter  period,  at 
least  two  distinct  forms  have  borne  the  same  name. 


Cattle. 

Domestic  cattle  are  certainly  the  descendants  of  more  than 
one  wild  form,  in  the  same  manner  as  has  been  shown  to  be  the 
case  with  our  dogs  and  pigs.  Naturalists  have  generally 
made  two  main  divisions  of  cattle  :  the  humped  kinds  inhabit- 
ing tropical  countries,  called  in  India  Zebus,  to  which  the 
specific  name  of  Bos  indicus  has  been  given  ;  and  the  common 
non -humped  cattle,  generally  included  under  the  name  of 
Bos  taurus.  The  humped  cattle  were  domesticated,  as  may 
be  seen  on  the  Egyptian  monuments,  at  least  as  early  as  the 
twelfth  dynasty,  that  is  2100  B.C.  They  differ  from  common 
oattle  in  various  osteological  characters,  even  in  a  greater 

^'^  S.  Sidney's  edition  of  '  Youatt  on  *^   '  Schweineschadel,'  s    140. 

r.he  Pig,'  1860,  pp.  7,  26,  27,  29,  30. 


Chap.  III.  THEIR    PARENTAGE.  gg 

degree,  according  to  Etitimeyer,^^  than  do  the  fossil  and 
prehistoric  European  species,  namely,  Bos  primigenius  and 
longifrons,  from  each  other.  They  differ,  also,  as  Mr.  Blyth,^^ 
who  has  particularly  attended  to  this  subject,  remarks,  in 
general  configuration,  in  the  shape  of  their  ears,  in  the  point 
where  the  dewlap  commences,  in  the  typical  curvature  of 
their  liorns,  in  their  manner  of  carrying  their  heads  when  at 
res^t,  in  their  ordinary  variations  of  colour,  especially  in  the 
frequent  presence  of  "  nilgau-like  markings  on  their  feet," 
and  "  in  the  one  being  born  with  teeth  protruding  through 
the  jaws,  and  the  other  not  so."  They  have  different  habits, 
and  their  voice  is  entirely  different.  The  humped  cattle  in 
India  "  seldom  seek  shade,  and  never  go  into  the  water  and 
there  stand  knee-deep,  like  the  cattle  of  Europe."  They  have 
run  wild  in  parts  of  Oude  and  Robilcund,  and  can  maintain 
themselves  in  a  region  infested  by  tigers.  They  have  given 
rise  to  many  races  differing  greatly  in  size,  in  the  presence 
of  one  or  two  humps,  in  length  of  horns,  and  other  respects. 
Mr.  Blyth  sums  up  emphatically  that  the  humped  and  hump- 
less  cattle  must  be  considered  as  distinct  species.  When  we 
consider  the  number  of  points  in  external  structure  and 
habits,  independently  of  important  osteological  differences,  in 
which  they  differ  from  each  other ;  and  that  many  of  these 
points  are  not  likely  to  have  been  affected  by  domestication, 
there  can  hardly  be  a  doubt,  notwithstanding  the  adverse 
opinion  of  some  naturalists,  that  the  humped  and  non-humped 
cattle  must  be  ranked  as  specifically  distinct. 

The  European  breeds  of  humpless  cattle  are  numerous. 
Professor  Low  enumerates  19  British  breeds,  only  a  few  of 
which  are  identical  with  those  on  the  Continent.  Even  the 
Binall  Channel   islands  of  Guernsey,  Jersey,  and   Alderney 

^2  '  Die    Fauna    der   Pfahlbauten,'  thirteen  or  fourteen  in  number  ;  see  a 

1861,    s.    109,    149,    222.      See   also  note  in  '  Indian  Field,'  1858,  p.  62. 
Geofi'roy  Saint-Hilaire,  in  'Mem.  du  ^s  < -phe  Indian  Field,'  1858,  p.  74, 

ilus.   d'Hist.  Xat.,'  tom.  x.  p.   172  ;  where  Mr.  Blyth  gives  his  authorities 

and  his   son    Isidore,   in  *  Hist.  Kat.  with    respect    to    the    feral    humped 

Gee  ,'  tom.  iii.  p.  G9.     Vasey,  in  his  cattle.     Pickering,  also,  in  his  'IJaces 

'Dp.inoations  of  the  Ox  Tribe,'  1851,  of  Man,'  1850,  p.    274,    notices    the 

p.   127,  says  the  zebu  has  four,  and  peculiar  grunt-like  character  of  th€ 

common    ox    five,    sacral    vertebrae.  voice  of  the  humped  cattle. 
Mr.   Hodgson  found    the    ribs    either 


84  CATTLE.  Chap.  Ill 

possess  tlieir  own  sub-breeds ;  ^*  and  tliese  again  differ  from 
the  cattle  of  the  other  British  islands,  such  as  Anglesea,  and 
the  western  isles  of  Scotland.  Desmarest,  who  paid  attention 
to  tlie  subject,  describes  15  French  races,  excluding  sub- 
varieties  and  those  imported  from  other  countries.  In  other 
parts  of  Europe  there  are  several  distinct  races,  such  as  the 
pale-coloured  Hungarian  cattle,  with  their  light  and  free 
step,  and  enormous  horns  sometimes  measuring  above  five 
feet  from  tip  to  tip  :  ^^  the  Podolian  cattle  also  are  remarkable 
from  the  height  of  their  fore-quarters.  In  the  most  recent 
work  on  Cattle,^^  engravings  are  given  of  fifty-five  European 
breeds  ;  it  is,  however,  probable  that  several  of  these  differ 
very  little  from  each  other,  or  are  merely  synonj^ms.  It  must 
not  be  supposed  that  numerous  breeds  of  cattle  exist  only  in 
long-civilized  countries,  for  we  shall  presently  see  that  several 
kinds  are  kept  by  the  savages  of  Southern  Africa. 

"With  respect  to  the  parentage  of  the  several  European  breeds, 
we  already  know  much  from  Nilsson's  ]\temoir/^  and  more  especially 
from  Eiitimeyer's  works  and  those  of  Boyd  Dawkins.  Two  or  three 
species  or  forms  of  Bos,  closely  allied  to  still  living  domestic  races, 
have  been  found  in  the  more  recent  tertiary  deposits  or  amongst 
prehistoric  remains  in  Europe.     Following  Rlitimeyer,  we  have : — 

Bos  prirnigenius.  —  This  magnificent,  well  known  species  was 
domesticated  in  Switzerland  during  the  Neolithic  period ;  e^en  at 
this  early  period  it  varied  a  little,  having  apparently  been  crossed 
with  other  races.  Some  of  the  larger  races  on  the  Continent,  as  the 
Friesland,  &c.,  and  the  Pembroke  race  ia  England,  closely  resemble 
in  essential  structure  B.  prirnigenius,  and  no  doubt  are  its  descen- 
dants. This  is  likewise  the  opinion  of  Nilsson.  Bos  'primigevius 
existed  as  a  wild  animal  in  Caesar's  time,  and  is  now  semi-wild, 
though  much  degenerated  in  size,  in  the  park  of  Chillingham ;  for 
I  am  informed  by  Professor  Eiitimeyer,  to  whom  Lord  Tanker  ville 
sent  a  skull,  that  the  Chillingham  cattle  are  less  altered  from  the 
true  prirnigenius  type  than  any  other  known  breed.^^ 


"  Mr.   H.   E.  Marquand,  in    'The  sance   Gen.    du    Bceuf,'    Paris,    1860. 

rimes,*  June  2ord,  1856.  Fig.  82  is  that  of  the  Podolian  breed. 

2^   V'asey,  '  Delineations  of  the  Ox-  ^^  A  translation  appeared  in  three 

Tribe,    p.    124.     Brace's    'Hungary,'  parts  in  the  '  Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat. 

1851,  p.  94.      The  Hungarian  cattle  Hist.,'  2nd  series,  vol.  iv.,  1849. 

descend,     according     to     Riitimeyer  ^^  &<?,  also,  Rutimeyer's  '  Beitrage 

(' Zahmen  Europ.  Rindes,'  1866,  s.  13  pal.  Gesch.  der  Wiederkjiuer      Basil, 

from  Bos  J)rimig^nius.  1865,  s.  54. 

**•  Moll   and   Gayot,    '  La    Connais- 


Chai'.  hi.  their  parentage.  85 

Bos  trochoceros. — This  form  is  not  included  in  the  three  species 
above  mentioned,  for  it  is  now  considered  by  Etitimeyer  to  be  the 
female  of  an  early  domesticated  form  of  B.  primigenius,  and  as  the 
progenitor  of  hmfrojitosus  race.  1  may  add  that  specific  names  have 
been  given  to  four  other  fossil  oxen,  now  believed  to  be  identical 
with  B.  primigenius.^^ 

Bos  Iongi/rons(ovbracJiyceros)  of  Owen. — This  very  distinct  species 
was  of  small  size,  and  had  a  short  body  with  fine  legs.  According 
to  Boyd  Dawkins"*"  it  was  introduced  as  a  domesticated  animal  into 
Britain  at  a  very  early  period,  and  supplied  food  to  the  Eoman 
legionaries.'^^  Some  remains  have  been  found  in  Ireland  in  certain 
crannoges,  of  which  the  dates  are  believed  to  be  from  843-933  a.d.'*^ 
It  was  also  the  commonest  form  in  a  domesticated  condition  in 
Switzerland  during  the  earliest  part  of  the  Neolithic  period.  Pro- 
fessor Owen*-'*  thinks  it  probable  that  the  Welsh  and  Highland  cattle 
are  descended  from  this  form ;  as  likewise  is  the  case,  according  to 
Riitimeyer,  with  some  of  the  existing  Swiss  breeds.  These  latter 
are  of  different  shades  of  colour  from  light-grey  to  blackish-brown, 
with  a  lighter  stripe  along  the  spine,  but  they  have  no  pure  white 
marks.  The  cattle  of  North  Wales  and  the  Highlands,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  generally  black  or  dark-coloured. 

Bos  frontosus  of  Nilsson. — This  species  is  allied  to  B.  longifrons, 
and,  according  to  the  high  authority  of  Mr.  Boyd  Dawkins,  is  identical 
with  it,  but  in  the  opinion  of  some  judges  is  distinct.  Both  co  existed 
in  Scania  during  the  same  late  geological  period,^*  and  both  have 
been  found  in  the  Irish  crannoges.*^  Nilsson  believes  that  his 
B.  frontosus  may  be  the  parent  of  the  mountain  cattle  of  Norway, 
which  have  a  high  protuberance  on  the  skull  between  the  base  of 
the  horns.  As  Professor  Owen  and  others  believe  that  the  Scotch 
Highland  cattle  are  descended  from  his  B.  longifrons,  it  is  worth 
notice  that  a  capable  judge  ^"^  has  remarked  that  he  saw  no  cattle 
in  Norway  like  the  Highland  breed,  but  that  they  more  nearly 
resembled  the  Devonshire  breed. 

On  the  whole  we  may  conclude,  more  especially  from  the 
researches    of    Boyd    Dawkins,    that    European    cattle    are 

^^  Pictet's  '  Paleontologie,'  torn  i.  p.  Animal     Remains,    &c.     Royal     Irish 

365  (2nd  edit.).     With  respect  to  B.  Academy,'  1860,  p.  29.     Also  '  Proc. 

trochoceros,  see  Riitimeyer's  'Zahmen  of  R.  Irish  Academy,'  1858,  p.  48. 

Europ.  Rindes,'  1866,  s.  26.  ^s  'Lecture:  Royal  Institution  of  G. 

*<*  W.  Boyd  Dawkins  on  the  British  Britain,'     May    2nd,     1856,     p.     4, 

Fossil  Oxen,'  'Journal  of  the  Geolog.  'British  Fossil  Mammals,'  p.  513. 

Soc.,'  Aug.  1867,  p.  182.    Also  'Proc.  "  Nilsson,  in  'Annals  and  Mag.  of 

Phil.   Soc.   of  Manchester,'   Nov.    14,  Nat.  Hist.,'  1849,  vol.  iv.  p.  354. 

187],  and  'Cave  Hunting,'  1875,  p.  "^  g^^  ^y^  jj^  Wilde,  ut  supra ;  and 

27,  138.  Mr.  Blythe,  in  '  Proc.  Irish  Academy/ 

*^  '  British  Pleistocene  Mammalia,'  March  5th,  1864. 

bv  W.  B.  Dawkins  and  W.  A.  Sandford,  *'^  Laing's    'Tour    in    Norway,'    p 

1866,  p.  XV.  110. 

*2  \^^ .  R.  Wilde,  '  An  Essay  on  the 


86  CATTLE.  Cha.-.  Ill 

descended  from  two  species ;  and  tliere  is  no  improbability 
in  tliis  fact,  for  the  genus  Bos  readily  yields  to  domestication. 
Besides  these  two  species  and  the  zebu,  the  yak,  the  gayal, 
and  the  arni  ^^  (not  to  mention  the  buffalo  or  genns  Bubalus) 
have  been  domesticated ;  making  altogether  six  species  oi 
Bos.  The  zebu  and  the  two  European  species  are  now  extinct 
in  a  wild  state.  Although  certain  races  of  cattle  were 
domesticated  at  a  very  ancient  period  in  Europe,  it  does  net 
follow  that  they  were  first  domesticated  here.  Those  who 
place  much  reliance  on  philology  argue  that  they  were  imported 
from  the  East.*^  It  is  probable  that  they  originally  inhabited 
a  temperate  or  cold  climate,  but  not  a  land  long  covered  with 
snow;  for  our  cattle,  as  we  have  seen  in  the  chapter  on 
Horses,  have  not  the  instinct  of  scraping  away  the  t<now  to 
get  at  the  herbage  beneath.  No  one  could  behold  the  magni- 
ficent wild  bulls  on  the  bleak  Falkland  Islands  in  the  southern 
hemisphere,  and  doubt  about  the  climate  being  admirably 
suited  to  them.  Azara  has  remarked  that  in  the  temperate 
regions  of  La  Plata  the  cows  conceive  when  two  years  old, 
whilst  in  the  much  hotter  country  of  Paraguay  they  do  not 
conceive  till  three  years  old ;  "  from  which  fact,"  as  he  adds, 
"  one  may  conclude  that  cattle  do  not  succeed  so  well  in  warm 
countries."  *^ 

Bos  primigenus  and  longifrons  have  been  ranked  b}"  nearly 
all  palseontologists  as  distinct  species ;  and  it  would  not  be 
reasonable  to  take  a  different  view  simply  because  their 
domesticated  descendants  now  intercross  with  the  utmost 
freedom.  All  the  European  breeds  have  so  often  been  crossed 
both  intentionally  and  unintentionally,  that,  if  any  steri- 
lity had  ensued  from  such  unions,  it  would  certainly  have 
been  detected.  As  zebus  inhabit  a  distant  and  much  hotter 
region,  and  as  they  differ  in  so  many  characters  from  our 
European  cattl  e,  1  have  taken  pains  to  ascertain  whether  the 
two  forms  are  fertile  when  crossed.  The  late  Lord  Powis 
imported  some  zebus  and  crossed  them  with  common  cattle 
i  u  Shropshire ;  and  1  was  assured  by  his  steward  that  the 

•"  Isid..  GeofFroy    Saint-Hil.aire,  *^  *  Quadruples du  Paraguay,' torn. 

Hist.  Nat.  Gen.,'  torn.  iii.  96.  ii.  p.  360. 

'^  Idem,  torn.  iii.  pp.  82,  91. 


Chap   m.  CROSSED   SPECIES  FERTILE.  87 

cross-bred  animals  were  perfectly  fertile  with  botli  parent- 
stocks.  Mr.  Blyth.  informs  me  that  in  India  hybrids,  with 
various  proportions  of  either  blood,  are  quite  fertile  ;  and  this 
can  hardly  fail  to  be  known,  for  in  some  districts  °°  the  two 
species  are  allowed  to  breed  freely  together.  Most  of  the 
cattle  which  were  first  introduced  into  Tasmania  were 
humped,  so  that  at  one  time  thousands  of  crossed  animals 
-existed  there ;  and  Mr.  B.  O'Neile  Wilson,  M.A.,  writes  to 
me  from  Tasmania  that  he  has  never  heard  of  any  sterility 
haying  been  observed.  He  himself  formerly  possessed  a 
herd  of  such  crossed  cattle,  and  all  were  perfectly  fertile ;  so 
much  so,  that  he  cannot  remember  even  a  single  cow  failing 
to  calve.  These  several  facts  afford  an  important  confirma- 
tion of  the  Pallasian  doctrine  that  the  descendants  of  species 
which  when  first  domesticated  would  if  crossed  have  been 
in  all  probability  in  some  degree  sterile,  become  perfectly 
fertile  after  a  long  course  of  domestication.  In  a  future 
chapter  we  shall  see  that  this  doctrine  throws  some  light  on 
the  difficult  subject  of  Hybridism. 

I  have  alluded  to  the  cattle  in  Chillingham  Park,  which, 
according  to  Riitimeyer,  have  been  very  little  changed  from 
the  Bos p-imigenias  tjije.  This  park  is  so  ancient  that  it  is 
referred  to  in  a  record  of  the  year  1220.  'J'he  (-attie  in  their 
instincts  and  habits  are  truly  wild.  They  are  white,  with 
the  inside  of  the  ears  reddish-brown,  eyes  rimmed  with  black, 
muzzles  brown,  hoofs  black,  and  horns  wliite  tijjped  with 
black.  Within  a  period  of  thirty-thiee  yeai  s  about  a  dozen 
calves  were  born  with  "  biown  and  blue  spots  upon  the 
cheeks  or  nec-ks ;  but  these,  together  with  any  defective 
animals,  were  always  destroyed."  According  to  Bewick, 
about  the  year  1770  some  calves  appeared  with  black  ears; 
but  theise  were  also  destroyed  by  the  keeper,  and  black  eai  s 
have  not  since  reappeared.  The  wild  white  cattle  in  the 
Duke  of  Hamilton's  park,  where  I  have  heard  of  the  birth 
of  a  black  calf,  are  said  by  Lord  Tankerville  to  be  inferior  to 
those  at  Chillingham.  The  cattle  kept  until  the  year  1780 
by  the  Duke  of  Queensberry,  but  now  extinct,  had  their  ears, 
muzzle,  and  orbits  of  the  eyes  black.  Those  which  have 
"  Walther,  *  Das  Rindvieh,'  1817,  s.  30. 


88  CATTi.E.  CuAP.  in 

existed  from  time  immeiTJorial  at  Cliartley,  closely  resemble 
the  cattle  at  Cliillingham,  bnt  are  larger,  "  with  some  small 
difference  in  the  colour  of  the  ears."  "  They  frequently  tend 
to  become  entirely  black ;  and  a  singular  superstition  prevails 
in  ihe  vicinity  that,  when  a  black  calf  is  born,  some  calamity 
impends  over  the  noble  liouse  of  Ferrers.  All  the  black 
calves  are  destroyed."  The  cattle  at  Burton  Constable  in 
Yorkshire,  now  extinct,  had  ears,  muzzle,  and  ihe  tip  of  tho 
tail  black.  Those  at  Gisburne,  also  in  Yorkshire,  are  said  by 
Bewick  to  have  been  sometimes  without  dark  muzzles,  with 
the  inside  alone  of  the  ears  brown;  and  the}^  are  elsewhere 
said  to  have  been  low  in  stature  and  hornless.^^ 

The  several  above-specified  differences  in  the  park-cattle, 
slight  though  they  be,  are  worth  recording,  as  they  show  that 
animals  living  nearly  in  a  state  of  nature,  and  exposed  to 
nearly  uniform  conditions,  if  not  allowed  to  roam  fieely  and 
to  cross  with  other  herds,  do  not  keep  as  uniform  as  truly 
wild  animals.  For  the  preservation  of  a  uniform  character, 
even  within  the  same  park,  a  certain  degree  of  selection — that 
is,  the  destruction  of  the  dark-coloui'ed  calves — is  apparently 
necessary. 

Boyd  Dawkins  believes  that  the  park-cattle  are  descetided 
from  anciently  domesticated,  and  not  truly  wild  animals  ; 
and.  from  the  occasional  appearance  of  dark-coloured  calves, 
it  is  imprubable  tliat  the  aboriginal  ^os^rmi^/emMS  was  white. 
It  is  curious  what  a  strong,  though  not  invariable,  tendency 
there  is  in  wild  or  escaped  cattle  to  become  white  with 
coloured  ears,  under  widely  different  conditions  of  life.  If 
the  old  writers   Boethius  and  Leslie  ^'^  can  be  trusted,  the 


*^  I    ani    much    indebted    to    the  Duke  of  Queensberry,  S'^e  Pennant's 

present  Earl  of  Tankerville  for  infer-  'Tour  in  Scotland,' p.  109.    For  those 

ttiation  about  his  wild  cattle  ;  and  for  of  Chartley,  see  Low's  '  Domesticate  1 

the  skull    which  was    sent    to    Prof.  Animals   of  Britain,'    1845,   p.    288. 

lliitiireyer.      The   fullest  account  of  For  those  of  Gisburne,  see  Bewick's 

tha   Chillingham  cattle  is  given    by  '  Quadrupeds,' and  '  Encyclop.  of  Kural 

Mr.    Hindmarsh,     together    with    a  Sports,'  p.  101. 

letter  by  the  late  Lord  Tankerville,  ^^  Boethius    was    born    in  ^  1470 { 

in  'Annals  and  Mag    of  Nat.  Hist.,'  'Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.,'  vol 

voL  iL,   1839,  p.  274.      See  Bewick,  ii.,  18:39,  p.  281;  and  vol.  iv.  1849 

'Quadrupeds,'  2nd  edit.,  1791,  p.  35,  p.  424. 
3ote      With  resoect  to  those  of  the 


CiiAP.  Ill  PARK-CATTLE.  89 

wild  cattle  of  Scotland  were  white  and  furiiislied  with  a  great 
mane  ;  but  the  colour  of  their  ears  is  not  mentioned.  In 
Wales,^^  during  the  tenth  century,  some  of  the  cattle  are 
described  as  being  white  with  red  ears.  Four  hundred  cattle 
thus  coloured  were  sent  to  King  John ;  and  an  early  record 
epeaks  of  a  hundred  cattle  with  red  ears  having  been  de- 
manded a&  a  compensation  for  some  oifence,  but,  if  the  cattle 
were  of  a  dark  or  black  colour,  150  were  to  be  presented. 
The  black  cattle  of  North  Wales  apparently  belong,  as  wo 
liave  seen,  to  the  small  longifrons  type  :  and  as  the  alter- 
native was  offered  of  either  150  dark  cattle,  or  100  white 
cattle  with  red  ears,  we  may  piesume  that  the  latter 
were  the  larger  beasts,  and  probably  belonged  to  the 
yriinigenius  t^'pe.  Youatt  has  remarked  that  at  the  present 
day,  whenever  cattle  of  the  short-horn  breed  are  white,  the 
extremities  of  tbeir  ears  are  more  or  less  tinged  with  red. 

The  cattle  which  have  run  wild  on  the  Pampas,  in  Texas, 
and  in  two  parts  of  Africa,  have  become  of  a  nearly  uniform 
dark  brownish-red.^^  On  the  Ladrone  Islands,  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  immense  herds  of  cattle,  which  were  wild  in  the  year 
1741,  are  described  as  "  milk-white,  except  their  ears,  which 
are  generally  black.'"  ^^  The  Falkland  Islands,  situated  far 
south,  with  all  the  conditions  of  life  as  different  as  it  is 
possible  to  conceive  from  those  of  the  Ladrones,  offer  a  more 
interesting  case.  Cattle  have  run  wild  theie  during  eighty 
or  ninety  yeans ;  and  in  the  southern  districts  the  animals 
are  mostly  white,  with  their  feet,  or  whole  heads,  or  only 
their  ears  black ;  but  my  informant,  Admiral  Sulivan,^^  who 
long  resided  on  these  islands,  does  not  believe  that  they  are 
ever  purely  white.  So  that  in  these  two  archipelagos  we  see 
that  the  cattle  tend  to  become  white  with  coloured  ears.  In 
other  parts  of  the  Falkland  Islands  other  colours  prevail  : 
near  Port  Pleasant  brown  is  the  common  tint;  ronnd  Mount 

53  Youatt  on  Cattle,   1834,  p.  48:  guay,'     torn.     ii.     p.     361.       Azara 

See  also  p.  242,  on  short-horn    cattle.  quotes  Butfon  for  the  feral  cattle  of 

Bell,  in  his  '  British  Quadrupeds,'  p.  Africa.     For  Texas,  see  '  Times,'  Feb, 

4'23,  states  that,  after  long  attending  18,  1846. 

to   the    subject,    he    has    found    that  ^^  Anson's  Voyage.     See  Kerr  and 

white  cattle  invariably  have  coloured  Porter's  '  Collection,'  vol.  xii.  p.  103. 

ears.  ^^  See  also   Mr.  Mackinnou's  pam- 

*■•  Azara,   'Quadrupedes  du  Para-  phlet  on  the  Falkland  Islands,  p  24. 


90  CATTLE.  Chap  III. 

Uisborn,  about  half  the  animals  in  some  of  the  herds  were 
lead-  or  mouse-coloured,  which  elsewhere  is  an  unusual  tint. 
These  latter  cattle,  though  generally  inhabiting  high  land, 
breed  about  a  month  earlier  than  the  other  cattle ;  and  this 
circumstance  would  aid  in  keeping  them  distinct  and  in  per- 
petuating a  peculiar  colour.  It  is  worth  recalling  to  mind 
that  blue  or  lead-coloured  marks  have  occasionally  appeared 
on  the  white  cattle  of  Chillingham.  So  plainly  diiferent 
were  the  colours  of  the  wild  herds  in  different  j)ai  ts  of  the 
Falkland  Islands,  that  in  hunting  them,  as  Admiral  Sulivan 
informs  me,  white  spots  in  one  district,  and  dark  spots  in 
another  district,  were  alwa3^s  looked  out  for  on  the  distant 
hills.  In  the  intermediate  distri-cts,  intermediate  colours 
prevailed.  Whatever  the  cause  may  be,  this  tendency  in  the 
wild  cattle  of  the  Falkland  Islands,  which  are  all  descended 
from  a  few  brought  from  La  Plata,  to  break  up  into  herds  of 
three  ditlerent  colours,  is  an  interesting  fact. 

Returning  to  the  several  British  breeds,  the  conspicuous 
difference  in  general  appearance  between  Short-horns,  Long- 
horns  (now  rarely  seen),  Herefords,  Highland  cattle,  Alder- 
ne3's,  &c.,  must  be  familiar  to  every  one.  A  part  of  this 
difference  may  be  attributed  to  descent  from  primordjially 
distinct  species ;  but  we  may  feel  sure  that  there  has  been 
a  considerable  amount  of  variation.  Even  during  the  Neo- 
lithic period,  the  domestic  cattle  were  to  a  certain  extent 
variable.  Within  recent  times  most  of  the  *breeds  have  been 
modiiied  by  careful  and  methodical  selection.  How  strongly 
the  characters  thus  acquired  are  inherited,  may  be  inferred 
from  the  prices  realised  by  the  improved  breeds  ;  even  at 
the  first  sale  of  Colling's  Short-horns,  eleven  bulls  reached  an 
average  of  2141.,  and  lately  Short-horn  bulls  have  been  fold 
for  a  thousand  guineas,  and  have  been  exported  to  all  quarters 
of  the  world. 

Some  constitutional  differences  may  be  here  noticed.  The 
Short-horns  arrive  at  maturity  far  earlier  than  the  wilder 
l^reeds,  such  as  those  of  Wales  or  the  Highlands.  This  fact 
has  been  shown  in  an  interesting  manner  by  Mr.  Simonds,^^ 

"  *  The  Ao;e  of  the  Ox,  Sheep,  Pig,'  &c.,  by  Prof.  James  Simonds,  published 
by  order  of  the  Royal  Agricilt.  Soc. 


Chjp.  hi.  TIIEIK   VARIATION.  91 

wlio  has  given  a  taLle  of  tlie  average  period  of  their  denti- 
tion, which  proves  that  there  is  a  difference  of  no  less  than 
six  months  in  the  appearance  of  the  permanent  incisors.  Tlie 
period  of  gestation,  from  observations  made  by  Tessier  on 
1131  cows,  varies  to  the  extent  of  eighty-one  days;  and  what 
is  more  interesting,  M.  Lefour  affirms  "that  the  period  of 
gestation  is  longer  in  the  large  German  cattle  than  in  the 
smaller  breeds."  '"^  With  respect  to  the  period  of  conception, 
it  seems  certain  that  Alderney  and  Zetland  cows  often  become 
pregnant  earlier  than  other  breeds. ^^  Lastly,  as  four  fully 
developed  mamma?  is  a  generic  character  in  the  genus  Bos,^° 
it  is  worth  notice  that  with  our  domestic  cows  the  two  rudi- 
mentary mammas  often  become  fairly  well  developed  and 
yield  milk. 

As  numerous  breeds  are  generally  found  only  in  long- 
civilized  countries,  it  may  be  well  to  show  that  in  some 
countries  inhabited  by  barbarous  races,  who  are  frequently 
at  war  with  each  other,  and  therefore  have  little  free  commu- 
nication, several  distinct  breeds  of  cattle  now  exist  or  for- 
merly existed.  At  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  Leguat  observed, 
in  the  year  1720,  three  kinds.^^  At  the  present  day  various 
travellers  have  noticed  the  differences  in  the  breeds  in 
Southern  Africa.  Sir  Andrew  Smith  several  years  ago 
remarked  to  me  that  the  cattle  possessed  by  the  different 
tribes  of  Caffres,  though  living  near  each  other  under  the 
same  latitude  and  in  the  same  kind  of  country,  yet  differed, 
and  he  ex^^ressed  much  surprise  at  the  fact.  Mr.  Andersson 
has  clescril)ed  '^^  the  Damara,  Bechuana,  and  Namaqua  cattle; 
and  he  informs  me  in  a  letter  that  the  cattle  north  of  Lake 
Ngami  are  likewise  different,  as  Mr.  Galton  has  heard  is  also 

^^  'Ann.  Agricult.  France,'  April,  des  Cours  Sckntifiqiies,' Feb.  12. 1688, 

18J7,  as  quoted  iu  'The  Veterinary,'  j).  657),  that  the  cattle  of  Piacentino 

vol.  xii.  p.  725.  I  quote  Tessier's  obser-  have  thirteen  dorsal  A-ertebric  and  ribs 

vations   from    Youatt   on    Cattle,    p.  in  the  place  of  the  ordinary  number 

527.  of  twelvp. 

s»  *The   Veterinary,'   vol.    viii.  p.  "  Leguat's     Voyage,     quoted    by 

681,    and    vol.    x.    p.    268.       Low's  Vasey  in  his  '  Delineations  of  the  Ox- 

'  Doraest.  Animals,  &c.,'  p.  297.  tribe,'  p.  132. 

«o  Mr.  Ogleby,   in    '  Proc.    Zoolog.  ''^  'Travels   in   South  Africa,'  pu 

Soc.,'  1836,  p.  138,  and   1840,  p.  4.  317,  33G. 
Quatrefages  quotes  Philippi  ('  Revue 


92  CATTLE.  Chap.  IIL 

the  case  with  the  cattle  of  Benguela.  The  Xamaqna  cattle 
in  size  and  shape  nearly  resemble  European  cattle,  and  have 
short  stout  horns  and  large  hoofs.  The  Damara  cattle  are 
very  peculiar,  being  big-boned,  with  slender  legs,  and  small 
ha]'d  feet ;  their  tails  are  adorned  with  a  tuft  of  long  bushy 
hair  nearl}^  touching  the  ground,  and  their  horns  are  extra- 
ordinarily large.  The  Bechuana  cattle  have  even  larger  horns, 
and  there  is  now  a  skull  in  London  with  the  two  horns 
8  ft.  8  J  in.  long,  as  measured  in  a  straight  line  from  tip  to  tip, 
and  no  less  than  13  ft.  5  in.  as  measured  along  their  curva- 
ture !  Mr.  Andersson  in  his  letter  to  me  says  that,  though 
he  will  not  venture  to  describe  the  differences  between  the 
breeds  belonging  to  the  many  different  sub-tribes,  yet  such 
certaiuly  exist,  as  shown  by  the  wonderful  facility  with 
which  the  natives  discriminate  them. 

That  many  breeds  of  cattle  have  originated  through 
variation,  independently  of  descent  from  distinct  species,  we 
may  infer  from  what  we  see  in  South  America,  where  the 
genus  Bos  was  not  endemic,  and  where  the  cattle  which  now 
exist  in  such  vast  numbers  are  the  descendants  of  a  few 
imported  from  Spain  and  Portugal.  In  Columbia,  Eoulin  ^^ 
describes  two  peculiar  breeds,  namely,  pelones,  with  extremely 
thin  and  fine  hair,  and  calongos,  absolutely  naked.  According 
to  Castelnau  there  are  two  races  in  Brazil,  one  like  European 
cattle,  the  other  different,  with  remarkable  horns.  In  Para- 
guay, Azara  describes  a  breed  which  certainly  originated 
in  S.  America,  called  chivos,  "  because  they  have  straight 
vertical  horns,  conical,  and  very  large  at  the  base."  He 
likewise  describes  a  dwarf  race  in  Corrientes,  with  short 
legs  and  a  body  larger  than  usual.  Cattle  without  horns, 
and  others  with  reversed  hair,  have  also  originated  in 
Paraguay. 

Another  monstrous  breed,  called  niatas  or  natas,  of  which  I 
saw  two  small  herds  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Plata,  is  so 
remarkable  as  to  deserve  a  fuller  description.  This  breed  bears 
the  same  relation  to  other  breeds,  as  bull  or  pug  dogs  do  to 

^^  'Mem.  de  I'lustitut  present,  par  June  15,  1846.  See  Azara,  'Quadru- 
div'TS  Savans,'  torn,  vi.,  1835,  p.  333.  pedes  du  Paraguay,  torn.  ii.  pp.  350 
For    BiHzil,   see   '  Coraptes    Rendus,'       361. 


Chap.  III.  THEIR    VARIATION.  93 

other  dogs,  or  as  improved  pigs,  according  to  H.  von  Xatlmsitis, 
do  to  common  pigs.^*  Eiitimeyer  believes  that  these  cattle 
belong  to  the  primigenius  type.*^^  The  forehead  is  very  short 
and  broad,  with  the  nasal  end  of  the  skull,  together  with 
the  whole  plane  of  the  upper  molar-teeth,  curved  upwards. 
The  lower  jaw  projects  beyond  the  upper,  and  has  a  corre- 
sponding upward  curvature.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that 
an  almost  similar  confirmation  characterizes,  as  I  am  informed 
by  Dr.  Falconer,  the  extinct  and  gigantic  Sivatherium  of 
India,  and  is  not  known  in  any  other  ruminant.  The  upper 
lip  is  much  drawn  back,  the  nostrils  are  seated  high  up  and 
are  widely  open,  the  eyes  project  outwards,  and  the  horns 
are  large.  In  walking  the  head  is  carried  low,  and  the  neck 
is  short.  1'he  hind  legs  appear  to  be  longer,  compared  with 
the  front  legs,  than  is  usual.  The  exposed  incisor  teeth,  the 
short  head  and  upturned  nostrils,  give  these  cattle  the  most 
ludicrous,  self-confident  air  of  defiance.  The  skull  which  I 
presented  to  the  College  of  Surgeons  has  been  thus  described 
by  Professor  Owen  :  ^^  "  It  is  remarkable  from  the  stunted 
development  of  the  nasals,  premaxillaries,  and  fore-part  of 
the  lower  jaw,  which  is  unusually  curved  upwards  to  come 
into  contact  with  the  premaxillaries.  The  nasal  bones  are 
about  one-third  the  ordinary  length,  but  retain  almost  their 
normal  breadth.  The  triangular  vacuity  is  left  between 
them,  the  frontal  and  lachrymal,  which  latter  bone  articulates 
with  the  premaxillary,  and  thus  excludes  the  maxillary  from 
any  junction  with  the  nasal."  So  that  even  the  con- 
nexion of  some  of  the  bones  is  changed.  Other  differences 
might  be  added :  thus  the  plane  of  the  condyles  is  somewhat 

^■*  '  Schweineschtldel,' 1864,  s.  104.  concluded,    after    making    numerous 

Xathusius    states    that    the    form    of  inquiries  in  La  Plata,  that  the  niata 

skull  characteristic  in  the  niata  cattle  cattle  transmit  their  peculiarities  or 

occasionally     appears     in     European  form  a  race. 

cattle ;  but  he  is  mistaken,  as  we  *'^  Ueber  Art  des  zahmen  Europ. 
shall  hereafter  see,  in  supposing  that  Rindes,  1866,  s.  28. 
these  cattle  do  not  form  a  distinct  ''^  '  Descriptive  Cat.  of  Ost,  Collect. 
race.  Prof.  Wyman,  of  Cambridge,  of  College  of  Surgeons,'  1853,  p.  624. 
United  States,  informs  me  that  the  Vasey,  in  his  '  Delineations  of  the  Ox- 
common  cod-fish  presents  a  similar  tribe,' has  given  a  figure  of  this  skull; 
monstrosity,  called  by  the  fishermen  and  I  sent  a  photograph  of  it  to  Prof 
•'  bull-dog   cod."      Prof.  Wyman  also  Riitimeyer, 


94  CATTLE.  Chap  III 

modified,  and  the  terminal  edge  of  the  premaxillaries  forms  an 
arch.  In  fact,  on  comparison  with  the  skull  of  a  common  ox, 
scarcely  a  single  bone  presents  the  same  exact  shape,  and  the 
wliole  skull  has  a  wonderfully  different  appearance. 

The  first  brief  published  notice  of  this  race  was  by  Azara, 
between  the  years  1783-96  ;  but  Don  F.  Muniz,  of  Luxan,  who 
has  kindly  collected  information  for  me,  states  that  about  17o0 
these  cattle  were  kept  as  curiosities  near  Buenos  Ayres. 
Their  origin  is  not  positively  known,  but  they  must  have  ori- 
ginated subsequently  to  the  year  1552,  when  cattle  were  first 
introduced.  Sefior  Muniz  informs  me  that  the  breed  is  believed 
to  have  originated  with  the  Indians  southward  of  the  Plata. 
Even  to  this  day  those  reared  near  the  Plata  show  their  less 
civilized  nature  in  being  fiercer  than  common  cattle,  and  in  the 
cow,  if  visited  too  often,  easily  deserting  her  first  calf.  The 
breed  is  very  true,  and  a  niata  bull  and  cow  invariably  produce 
aiata  calves.  The  breed  has  already  lasted  at  least  a  century. 
A  niata  bull  crossed  with  a  common  cow,  and  the  reverse  cross, 
yield  oftspring  having  an  intermediate  character,  but  with 
the  niata  character  strongly  displayed.  According  to  Senor 
Muniz,  there  is  the  clearest  evidence,  contrary  to  the  common 
belief  of  agriculturists  in  analogous  cases,  that  the  niata  cow 
when  crossed  with  a  common  bull  transmits  her  peculiarities 
more  strongly  than  does  the  niata  bull  when  crossed  with  a 
common  cow.  When  the  pasture  is  tolerably  long,  these  cattle 
feed  as  well  as  common  cattle  with  their  tongue  and  palate ;  but 
during  the  great  droughts,  when  so  many  animals  perish  on  the 
Pampas,  the  niata  breed  lies  under  a  great  disadvantage,  and 
would,  if  not  attended  to,  become  extinct ;  for  the  common 
cattle,  like  horses,  are  able  to  keep  alive  by  browsing  with 
their  lips  on  the  twigs  of  trees  and  on  reeds  :  this  the  niatas 
cannot  so  well  do,  as  their  lips  do  not  join,  and  hence  they  are 
f^)und  to  perish  before  the  common  cattle.  This  strikes  me 
ae  a  good  illustration  of  hoAV  little  we  are  able  to  judge  from 
the  ordinary  habits  of  an  animal,  on  what  circumstances, 
occurring  only  at  long  intervals  of  time,  its  rarity  or  extinc- 
tion may  depend.  It  shows  us,  also,  how  natural  selection 
would  have  determined  the  rejection  of  the  niata  modification 
had  it  arisen  in  a  stato  of  nature. 


CiiAP.  III.  CAUSES    OF    VARIATION.  95 

Having  described  the  semi-monstrous  niata  breed,  I  may 
allude  to  a  white  bull,  said  to  have  been  brought  from  iVfrica, 
which  was  exhibited  in  London  in  1829,  and  which  has  been 
well  figured  by  Mr.  Harvey. ^'^  It  had  a  hump,  and  was  fur- 
nished with  a  mane.  The  dewlap  was  peculiar,  being  divided 
between  its  fore-legs  into  parallel  divisions.  Its  lateral  hoofa 
were  annually  shed,  and  grew  to  the  length  of  five  or  six  inches. 
The  eye  was  very  peculiar,  being  remarkably  prominent,  and 
"  resembled  a  cup  and  ball,  thus  enabling  the  animal  to  see 
on  all  sides  with  equal  ease  ;  the  pupil  was  small  and  oval,  or 
rather  a  parallelogram  with  the  ends  cut  off,  and  lying  trans- 
versely across  the  ball."  A  new  and  strange  breed  might 
probably  have  been  formed  by  careful  breeding  and  selection 
from  this  animal. 

I  have  often  speculated  on  the  probable  causes  through 
which  each  separate  district  in  Great  Britain  came  to  possess 
in  former  times  its  own  peculiar  breed  of  cattle ;  and  the  ques- 
tion is,  perhaps,  even  more  perplexing  in  the  case  of  Southern 
Africa.  We  now  know  that  the  differences  may  be  in  part 
attributed  to  descent  from  distinct  species ;  but  this  cause  is 
far  from  sufficient.  Have  the  slight  differences  in  climate 
and  in  the  nature  of  the  pasture,  in  the  different  districts  of 
Britain,  directly  induced  corresponding  differences  in  the 
cattle  ?  We  have  seen  that  the  semi  -  wild  cattle  in  the 
several  British  parks  are  not  identical  in  colouring  or  size, 
and  that  some  degree  of  selection  has  been  requisite  to  keep 
them  true.  It  is  almost  certain  that  abundant  food  given 
during  many  generations  directly  affects  the  size  of  a  breed. ^^ 
That  climate  directly  affects  the  thickness  of  the  skin  and 
the  hair  is  likewise  certain :  thus  Eoulin  asserts  ^^  that  the 
hides  of  the  feral  cattle  on  the  hot  Llanos  "  are  always  much 
less  heavy  than  those  of  the  cattle  raised  on  the  high  plat- 
form of  Bogota  ;  and  that  these  hides  yield  in  weight  and  in 
thickness  of  hair  to  those  of  the  cattle  which  have  run  wild 
on  the  loft}''  Paramos. '     The  same  difference  has  been  observed 

^^  LoudoQ  3       Magazine     of    Nat,  ^*  Low,  '  Domesticated  Animals  ol 

Hist.,'  vol.  i.,  182.1,  p.  113.    Separate  the  British  Isles,'  p.  264. 

figures  are  given   of  the  animal,  its  ^^  '  Mem.  de  I'lnstitut  present,  pai 

haoh,  eye,  and  dewlap.  divers  Savaus,'  torn,  vi.,  1835,  p.  332 


96  CATTLE.  Ckav.  Tli 

in  tlie  hides  of  the  cattle  reared  on  the  bleak  Falkland  Islando 
and  on  the  temperate  Pampas.  Low  has  remarked  '°  that  the 
cattle  which  inhabit  the  more  hnmid  parts  of  Britain  have 
Ion  O'er  hair  and  thicker  skins  than  other  British  cattle. 
When  we  compare  highly  improved  stall-fed  cattle  with  tho 
wilder  breeds,  or  compare  mountain  and  lowland  breeds,  w(i 
cannot  doubt  that  an  active  life,  leading  to  the  free  use  of 
the  limbs  and  lungs,  affects  the  shape  and  proportions  of  the 
whole  body.  It  is  probable  that  some  breeds,  such  as  the  semi- 
monstrous  niata  cattle,  and  some  peculiarities,  such  as  being 
hornless,  &c.,  have  appeared  suddenly  owing  to  what  we  may 
call  in  our  ignorance  spontaneous  variation  ;  but  even  in  this 
case  a  rude  kind  of  selection  is  necessary,  and  the  animals 
thus  characterized  must  be  at  least  partially  separated  from 
others.  This  degree  of  care,  however,  has  sometimes  been 
taken  even  in  little-civilized  districts,  where  we  should  least 
have  expected  it,  as  in  the  case  of  the  niata,  chivo,  and  horn- 
less cattle  in  S.  America. 

That  methodical  selection  has  done  wonders  within  a  recent 
period  in  modifying  our  cattle,  no  one  doubts.  During  the 
process  of  methodical  selection  it  has  occasionally  happened  that 
deviations  of  structure,  more  strongly  pronounced  than  mere 
individual  differences,  yet  by  no  means  deserving  to  be  called 
monstrosities,  have  been  taken  advantage  of:  thus  the  famous 
Long-horn  Bull,  Shakespeare,  though  of  the  pure  Canley 
stock,  "  scarcelj^  inherited  a  single  point  of  the  long-horned 
breed,  his  horns  excepted  ;  ^^  jet  in  the  hands  of  Mr.  Fowler, 
this  bull  greatly  improved  his  race.  We  have  also  reason  to 
believe  that  selection,  carried  on  so  far  unconsciously  that  there 
was  at  no  one  time  any  distinct  intention  to  improve  or  change 
the  breed,  has  in  the  course  of  time  modified  most  of  our 
cattle  ;  for  by  this  process,  aided  by  more  abundant  food,  all  ihe 
lowland  British  breeds  have  increased  greatly  in  size  and  in 
early  maturity  since  the  reign  of  Henry  VIT.^^  It  should 
never  be  forgotten  that  many  animals  have  to  be  annually 

^0  Idem,  pp.  304,  368,  &c.  "^  Youatt  on  Cattle,  p.  116.      Lord 

"  Youatt  on  Cattle,  p.  193.    A  full  ^7^ence^    has    written    on    this    same 

account   of   this    bull   is   talien   from  subject 

Marshall. 


Chap.  III.  SHEEP:   THEIR  VARIATION.  97 

glaughtered  ;  so  that  eacli  owner  must  determine  whicli  shall 
be  killed  and  which  preserved  for  breeding.  In  every  district, 
as  Youatt  has  remarked,  there  is  a  prejudice  in  favour  of  the 
native  breed ;  so  that  animals  possessing  qualities,  whatever 
they  may  be,  which  are  most  valued  in  each  district,  will  bo 
oftenest  preserved  ;  and  this  unmethodical  selection  assuredly 
will  in  the  long  run  aifect  the  character  of  the  whole  breed. 
But  it  may  be  asked,  can  this  rude  kind  of  selection  have  been 
practised  by  barbarians  such  as  those  of  southern  Africa  ?  In 
a  future  chapter  on  Selection  we  shall  see  that  this  has 
certainly  occurred  to  some  extent.  Therefore,  looking  to  the 
origin  of  the  many  breeds  of  cattle  which  formerly  inhabited 
the  several  districts  of  Britain,  I  conclude  that,  although 
slight  differences  in  the  nature  of  the  climate,  food,  &c.,  as 
well  as  changed  habits  of  life,  aided  by  correlation  of  growth, 
and  the  occasional  appearance  from  unknown  causes  of  con- 
siderable deviations  of  structure,  have  all  probably  pla;;;ed 
their  parts  ;  yet  that  the  occasional  preservation  in  each 
district  of  those  individual  animals  which  were  most  valued 
by  each  owner  has  perhaps  been  even  more  effective  in  the 
production  of  the  several  British  breeds.  As  soon  as  two  or 
more  breeds  were  formed  in  any  district,  or  when  new  breeds 
descended  from  distinct  species  were  introduced,  their  crossing, 
especially  if  aided  by  some  selection,  will  have  multiplied  the 
number  and  modified  the  characters  of  the  older  breeds. 

Sheep. 

I  SHALL  treat  this  subject  briefly.  Most  authors  look  at  our 
domestic  sheep  as  descended  from  several  distinct  species. 
Mr.  Blyth,  who  has  carefully  attended  to  the  subject,  believes 
that  fourteen  wild  species  now  exist,  but  "  that  not  one  of 
them  can  be  identified  as  the  progenitor  of  any  one  of  the 
interminable  domestic  races."  M.  Gervais  thinks  that 
there  are  six  species  of  Ovis,^^  but  that  our  domestic  sheep 
form  a  distinct  genus,  now  completely  extinct.      A  German 

^'  Blyth,    on    the    genus    Ovis,    in  Mr.  Blyth's  excellent  articles  in  '  Land 

'Annals"  and  Mag.   of  Nat.  History,'  and    Water,'    1867,    pp.     134-,     156. 

vol.  vii.,  1841,  p.^261.     With  respe'ct  Gervais,  'Hist.  Nat.  des  Mammiiores, 

to   the  parentage  of  the  breeds,  see  1855,  torn.  ii.  p.  191. 


98  SHEEP :  Chap.  Ill 

naturalist'*  believes  tliat  our  slieep  descend  from  ten  aborigi- 
nally distinct  species,  of  which  only  one  is  still  living  in  a  wild 
state  !  Another  ingenious  observer,"^  though  not  a  naturalist, 
with  a  bold  defiance  of  everything  known  on  geographical  dis- 
tribution, infers  that  the  sheep  of  Great  Britain  alone  are  the 
descendants  of  eleven  endemic  British  forms  I  Under  such 
a  hopeless  state  of  doubt  it  would  be  useless  for  my  purpose 
to  give  a  detailed  account  of  the  several  breeds ;  but  a  few 
remarks  may  be  added. 

Sheep  have  been  domesticated  from  a  very  ancient  period, 
Riitimeyer  ''^  found  in  the  Swiss  lake-dwellings  the  remains  of 
a  small  breed,  with  thin  tall  legs,  and  horns  like  those  of  a 
goat,  thus  differing  somewhat  from  any  kind  now  known. 
Almost  every  country  has  its  own  peculiar  breed  ;  and  many 
countries  have  several  breeds  differing  greatly  from  each  other. 
One  of  the  most  strongly  marked  races  is  an  Eastern  one  with 
a  long  tail,  including,  according  to  Pallas,  twenty  vertebrae, 
and  so  loaded  with  fat  that  it  is  sometimes  placed  on  a  truck, 
which  is  dragged  about  by  the  living  animal.  These  sheep, 
though  ranked  by  Fitzinger  as  a  distinct  aboriginal  form, 
bear  in  their  drooping  ears  the  stamp  of  long  domestication. 
This  is  likewise  the  case  with  those  sheep  which  have  two 
great  masses  of  fat  on  the  rump,  with  the  tail  in  a  rudimen- 
tary condition.  The  Angola  variety  of  the  long-tailed  race 
has  curious  masses  of  fat  on  the  back  of  the  head  and  beneath 
tlie  jaws.'^'^  Mr.  Hodgson  in  an  admirable  paper  ''^  on  the 
sheep  of  the  Himalaya  infers  from  the  distribution  of  the 
several  races,  "  that  this  caudal  augmentation  in  most  of  its 
phases  is  an  instance  of  degeneracy  in  these  pre-eminently 
Alpine  animals."  The  horns  present  an  endless  diversity  in 
character ;  being  not  rarely  absent,  especially  in  the  female 
sex,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  amounting  to  four  or  even  eight 
in  number.  The  horns,  when  numerous,  arise  from  a  crest 
on  the  frontal  bone,  which  is  elevated  in  a  peculiar  manner. 

^*  Dr.    L.    Fitzinger,     *  Ueber    die  vol.  ii.  p.  264. 
Racen  des  Zahmen  Schafes,'  1860,  s.  '«  '  Pfahlbauten,'  s.  127,  193. 

86.  "  Youatt  on  Sheep,  p.  120. 

"  J.    Anderson,     '  Recreations     in  ^*  '  Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Soc.  of 

Agriculture    and    Natural    History,'  Bengal,'  vol.  xvi.  pp.  1007,  1016. 


CnAP.  Ill  THEIR   VARIATION.  99 

It  is  remarkable  that  multiplicity  of  horns  "  is  generally 
accompanied  by  great  length  and  coarseness  of  the  fleece." '^^ 
This  correlation,  however,  is  far  from  being  general ;  for 
instance,  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  D.  Forbes,  that  the  Spanish 
sheep  in  Chile  resemble,  in  fleece  and  in  all  other  characteis, 
their  parent  merino-race,  except  that  instead  of  a  pair  they 
generally  bear  four  horns.  The  existence  of  a  pair  of  mammas 
is  a  generic  character  in  the  genus  Ovis  as  well  as  in  several 
allied  forms  ;  nevertheless,  as  Mr.  Hodgson  has  remarked, 
"  this  character  is  not  absolutely  constant  even  among  the 
true  and  proper  sheep  :  for  I  have  more  than  once  met  with 
Cagias  (a  sub-Himalayan  domestic  race)  possessed  of  four 
teats."  ^°  This  case  is  the  more  remarkable  as,  when  any 
part  or  organ  is  present  in  reduced  number  in  comparison 
v/ith  the  same  part  in  allied  groups,  it  usually  is  subject  to 
little  variation.  The  presence  of  interdigital  pits  has  like- 
wise been  considered  as  a  generic  distinction  in  sheep  ;  but 
Isidore  Geoffrey  ^^  has  shown  that  these  pits  or  pouches  are 
absent  in  some  breeds. 

In  sheep  there  is  a  strong  tendency  for  characters,  which 
have  apparently  been  acquired  under  domestication,  to  become 
attached  either  exclusively  to  the  male  sex,  or  to  be  more 
highly  developed  in  this  than  in  the  other  sex.  Thus  in 
many  breeds  the  horns  are  deficient  in  the  ewe,  though  this 
likewise  occurs  occasionally  with  the  female  of  the  wild 
musmon.  In  the  rams  of  the  Wallachian  breed,  "  the  horns 
spring  almost  perpendicularly  from  the  frontal  bone,  and 
then  take  a  beautiful  spiral  form ;  in  the  ewes  they  protrude 
nearly  at  right  angles  from  the  head,  and  then  become  twisted 
in  a  singular  manner."  ^^  Mr.  Hodgson  states  that  the  ex- 
traordinarily arched  nose  or  chafl'ron,  which  is  so  highly 
developed  in  several  foreign  breeds,  is  characteristic  of  the 
ram  alone,  and  apparently  is  the  result  of  domestication. ^^ 
I  hear  from  Mr.  Blyth  that  the  accumulation  of  fat  in  the 
fitt-tailed  sheep  of  the  plains  of  India  is  greater  in  the  male 

"  Youatt  on  oheep,  pp.  142-169.'  435. 

^0  *  Journal  Asiat.  Soc.  of  Bengal,  ^^  Youatt  on  Sheep,  p.  138. 

'ol.  xvi.,  1847,  p.  1015.  ^3  <  Journal  Asiat.  Soc.  of  Bengal, 

3>  'Hisi.    Nat.    Gen.,     torn.   iii.   p.  vol.  xvi.,  1847,  pp.  1015,  1016. 


LOO  sheep:  Chai>  m 

than  in  the  female ;  and  Fitzinger  ^'^  remarks  tliat  tlie  mane 
in  the  African  maned  race  is  far  more  developed  in  the  ram 
than  in  the  ewe. 

Different  races  of  sheep,  like  cattle,  present  constitutional 
differences.  Thus  the  improved  breeds  arrive  at  maturity  at 
an  early  age,  as  has  been  well  shown  by  Mr.  Simonds  through 
their  early  average  period  of  dentition.  The  several  races 
have  become  adapted  to  different  kinds  of  pasture  and 
"climate :  for  instance,  no  one  can  rear  Leicester  sheep  on 
mountainous  regions,  where  Cheviots  flourish.  As  Youatt 
has  remarked,  "  In  all  the  different  districts  of  Great  Britain 
we  find  various  breeds  of  sheep  beautifully  adapted  to  the 
locality  which  they  occupy.  No  one  knows  their  origin  ; 
they  are  indigenous  to  the  soil,  climate,  pasturage,  and  the 
locality  on  which  they  graze ;  they  seem  to  have  been  formed 
for  it  and  by  it."  ^^  Marshall  relates  ^^  that  a  flock  of  heavy 
Lincolnshire  and  light  Norfolk  sheep  which  had  been  bred 
together  in  a  large  sheep-walk,  part  of  which  v/as  low,  rich, 
and  moist,  and  another  part  high  and  dry,  with  benty  grass, 
when  turned  out,  regularly  separated  from  each  other ;  the 
heavy  sheep  drawing  off  to  the  rich  soil,  and  the  lighter  sheep 
to  their  own  soil ;  so  that  "  whilst  there  was  plenty  of  grass 
the  two  breeds  kept  themselves  as  distinct  as  rooks  and 
pigeons."  Numerous  sheep  from  various  parts  of  the  world 
have  been  brought  during  a  long  course  of  years  to  the 
Zoological  Gardens  of  London ;  but  as  Youatt,  who  attended 
the  animals  as  a  veterinary  surgeon,  remarks,  "  few  or  none 
die  of  the  rot,  but  they  are  phthisical ;  not  one  of  them  from 
a  torrid  climate  lasts  out  the  second  year,  and  when  they  die 
their  lungs  are  tuberculated."  ^^  There  is  very  good  evidence 
that  English  breeds  of  sheep  will  not  succeed  in  France.^^ 
Even  in  certain  parts    of  England   it   has  been   found  im- 

^*   '  Racen  des  Zahmen  Schafes,'  s.  sheep  with  Leicesters,  see   Youatt,  p. 

•ST.  ^  325. 

**  'Rural  Economy  of  Norfolk,'  vol.  ^'  Youatt  on  Sheep,  note,  p.  491. 

ii.  p.  136.  **  M.    Malingie-Nouel    Journal  li. 

^'^  Youatt  on   Sheep,   p.   312.     On  Agricult.  Soc,  vol.  xiv.  1853,  p.  214. 

same  subject,  see  excellent  remarks  in  Translated  and  therefore  approved  by 

'Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1858,  p.  8B8.  a  great  authority,  Mr.  Pusey. 
For   experiments  in  crossing  Cheviot 


CnAP.  m.  THEIR   VARIATION.  101 

possible  to  keep  certain  breeds  of  sheep  ;  tbus  on  a  farm  on 
the  banks  of  the  Ouse,  the  Leicester  sheep  were  so  rapidly 
destroyed  by  pleuritis  ^^  that  the  owner  could  not  keep  them; 
the  coarser-skinned  sheep  never  being  affected. 

The  period  of  gestation  was  formerly  thought  to  be  of  so 
unalterable  a  character,  that  a  supposed  difference  of  this  kind 
between  the  wolf  and  the  dog  was  esteemed  a  sure  sign  of 
specific  distinction ;  but  we  have  seen  that  the  period  is 
shorter  in  the  improved  breeds  of  the  pig,  and  in  the  larger 
breeds  of  the  ox,  than  in  other  breeds  of  these  two  animals. 
And  now  we  know,  on  the  excellent  authority  of  Hermann 
von  Nathusius,^^  that  Merino  and  Southdown  sheep,  when 
both  have  long  been  kept  under  exactly  the  same  conditions, 
differ  in  their  average  period  of  gestation,  as  is  seen  in  the 
following  Table  : — 

Merinos 150-3  days. 

Southdowns 144-2    „ 

Half-bred  Merinos  and  Southdowns  ..  146'3    „ 

I  blood  of  rfouthdown  1450     „ 

7-  144-2 

In  this  graduated  difference  in  cross-bred  animals  having 
different  proportions  of  Southdown  blood,  we  see  how  strictly 
the  two  periods  of  gestation  have  been  transmitted.  Katliu- 
sius  remarks  that,  as  Southdowns  grow  with  remarkable 
rapidity  after  birth,  it  is  not  surprising  that  their  foetal 
development  should  have  been  shortened.  It  is  of  course 
possible  that  the  difference  in  these  two  breeds  may  be  due 
to  their  descent  from  distinct  parent-species;  but  as  the 
early  maturity  of  the  Southdowns  has  long  been  carefully 
attended  to  by  breeders,  the  difference  is  more  probably  the 
result  of  such  attention.  Lastly,  the  fecundity  of  the  several 
breeds  differs  much ;  some  generally  producing  twins  or  even 
triplets  at  a  birth,  of  which  fact  the  curious  Shangai  sheep 
(with  their  truncated  and  rudimentary  ears,  and  great  Eoman 
noses),  lately  exhibited  in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  offer  a 
remarkable  instance. 

Sheep  are  perhaps  more  readily  affected  by  the  direct  action 

**"  *The  Veterinary,'  vol.  x.  p.  217.        given  in  '  Bull.  Soc.  Imp.  d'Acclimat.,' 
*^  A   translation   of  his   paper    is       torn,  ix.,  1862,  p.  7'^^ 


102  SHEEP:  Chap.  III. 

of  the  conditions  of  life  to  whicli  they  have  been  exposed  than 
almost  any  other  domestic  animal.  According  to  Pallas,  and 
more  recently  according  to  Erman,  the  fat-tailed  Kirghisian 
sheep,  when  bred  for  a  few  generations  in  Eussia,  degenerate, 
and  the  mass  of  fat  dwindles  away,  "  the  scanty  and  bitter 
herbage  of  the  steppes  seems  so  essential  to  their  de\'elop 
ment."  Pallas  makes  an  analogous  statement  with  respect 
to  one  of  the  Crimean  breeds.  Burnes  states  that  the 
Isarakool  breed,  which  produces  a  fine,  curled,  black,  and 
valuable  fleece,  when  removed  from  its  own  canton  near 
Bokhara  to  Persia  or  to  other  quarters,  loses  its  peculiar 
Heece.^^  In  all  such  cases,  however,  it  may  be  that  a  change 
of  any  kind  in  the  conditions  of  life  causes  variability  and 
consequent  loss  of  character,  and  not  that  certain  conditions 
are  necessary  for  the  development  of  certain  characters. 

Great  heat,  however,  seems  to  act  directly  on  the  fleece: 
several  accounts  have  been  published  of  the  change  which 
sheep  imported  from  Europe  undergo  in  the  West  Indies. 
Dr.  ^'icholson  of  Antigua,  informs  me  that,  after  the  third 
generation,  the  wool  disappears  from  the  whole  body,  except 
over  the  loins  ;  and  the  animal  then  appears  like  a  goat  with 
a  dirty  door-mat  on  its  back.  A  similar  change  is  said  to 
take  place  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa.^^  On  the  other  hand, 
many  wool-bearing  sheep  live  on  the  hot  plains  of  India. 
Roulin  asserts  that  in  the  lower  and  heated  valleys  of  the 
Cordillera,  if  the  lambs  are  sheared  as  soon  as  the  wool  has 
grown  to  a  certain  thickness,  all  goes  on  afterwards  as  usual ; 
but  if  not  sheared,  the  wool  detaches  itself  in  flakes,  and 
short  shining  hair  like  that  on  a  goat  is  produced  ever 
afterwards.  This  curious  result  seems  merely  to  be  an  ex- 
aggerated tendency  natural  to    the  Merino   breed,  for  as  a 

*i  Erman's     '  Travels    in    Siberia '  the  Sierra  Leone  Company,  as  quoted 

(Ena:.  trans.),  vol.  i.  p.  228.    For  Pallas  in  White's  '  Gradation  of  Man,'  p.  95. 

on  the  fat-tailed  sheep,  I  quote  from  With    respect   to    the    change  which 

Anderson's   account  of  the  '  Sheep  of  sheep  undergo  in  the  West  Indies,  s-'c 

Russia,'   1794,  p.   34.     With   respect  also   Dr.   Davy,  in   '  Edin.  New.  Phil, 

to    the    Crimean    sheep,    tee   Pallas'  Journal,'  Jan.  1852.     For  the  state- 

*  Travels '  (Eng.  trans.),  vol.  ii.  p.  454.  ment  made  by  Roulin,  see  '  Mem.  do 
For  the  Karakool  sheep,  see  Burnes'  I'lnstitut  present,  par  divers  Siivaus,* 

*  Travels  ia  Bokhara,'  vol.  iii.  p.  l.M.  tom.  vi.,  1835,  p.  347. 

^'  See  Report  cf  the  Directors  of 


Chap.  Ill  CAUSES   OF   VARIATION.  103 

great  authority,  namely,  Loi^d  Somerville,  remarks,  "  tho 
wool  of  our  Merino  sheep  after  shear-time  is  hard  and  coarse 
to  such  a  degree  as  to  render  it  almost  impossible  to  suppose 
that  the  same  animal  could  bear  wool  so  opposite  in  quality, 
compared  to  that  which  has  been  clipped  from  it :  as  the 
cold  weather  advances,  the  fleeces  recover  their  soft  quality.'' 
As  in  sheej)  of  all  breeds  the  fleece  naturally  consists  of 
longer  and  coarser  hair  covering  shorter  and  softer  wool,  the 
change  which  it  often  undergoes  in  hot  climates  is  probably 
merely  a  case  of  ttnequal  development ;  for  even  with  those 
sheep  which  like  goats  are  covered  with  hair,  a  small  quantity 
of  underlying  wool  may  always  be  found. ^^  In  the  wild 
mountain-sheep  (^Ovis  montana)  of  North  America  there  is  an 
analogous  annual  change  of  coat ;  "  the  wool  begins  to  drop 
out  in  early  spring,  leaving  in  its  place  a  coat  of  hair  resem- 
bling that  of  the  elk,  a  change  of  pelage  quite  different  in 
character  from  the  ordinary  thickening  of  the  coat  or  hair, 
common  to  all  furred  animals  in  winter, — for  instance,  in  the 
horse,  the  cow,  &c.,  which  shed  their  winter  coat  in  the 
spring."  ^* 

A  slight  difference  in  climate  or  pasture  sometimes  slightly 
affects  the  fleece,  as  has  been  observed  even  in  different  districts 
in  England,  and  is  well  shown  by  the  great  softness  of  the 
wool  brought  from  Southern  Australia.  But  it  should  be 
observed,  as  Youatt  repeatedly  insists,  that  the  tendency  to 
change  may  generally  be  counteracted  by  careful  selection. 
M.  Lasterye,  after  discussing  this  subject,  sums  up  as 
follows  :  "  The  preservation  of  the  Merino  race  in  its  utmost 
purity  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  the  marshes  of  Holland, 
and  under  the  rigorous  climate  of  Sweden,  furnishes  an  ad- 
ditional support  of  this  my  unalterable  principle,  that  fine- 
woolled  sheep  may  be  kept  wherever  industrious  men  and 
intelligent  breeders  exist." 

That  methodical   selection    has    effected  great  changes  in 

*'  Yoiiatt   on  Sheep,  p.  69,  where  tion    counteracting    any  tendency  to 

Lord  Somerville  is  quoted.  See  p.  117,  change,  see  pp.  70,  117,  120,  168' 

on    the  presence   of  wool   under  the  ^'^  Audubon    and    Bachman,    'The 

hair.     With  respect  to  the  fleeces   of  Quadrupeds  of  North  America,'  1846, 

Anstraliaa  sh^^ep,  p.  185.     On  selec-  vol.  v.  p.  365. 


104  '  SHEEP:  Chap.  III. 

several  breeds  of  sheep  no  one  who  knows  anything  on  the 
subject,  entertains  a  doubt.  The  case  of  the  Soiithdowns,  as 
improved  by  Ellman,  offers  perhaps  the  most  striking  in- 
stance. Unconscious  or  occasional  selection  has  likewise 
slowly  produced  a  great  effect,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  chapters 
on  Selection.  That  crossing  has  largely  modified  some  breeds, 
no  one  who  will  study  what  has  been  written  on  this  subject 
— for  instance,  Mr.  Spooner's  paper — will  dispute;  but  to 
produce  uniformity  in  a  crossed  breed,  careful  selection  and 
"  rigorous  weeding,"  as  this  author  expresses  it,  are  indis- 
pensable.^^ 

In  some  few  instances  new  breeds  have  suddenly  originated ; 
thus,  in  1791,  a  ram-lamb  was  born  in  Massachusetts,  having 
short  crooked  legs  and  a  long  back,  like  a  turnspit-dog.  From 
this  one  lamb  the  otter  or  ancon  semi-monstrous  breed  was 
raised  ;  as  these  sheep  could  not  leap  over  the  fences,  it  was 
thought  that  they  would  be  valuable ;  but  they  have  been 
supplanted  by  merinos,  and  thus  exterminated.  The  sheep 
are  remarka\)le  from  transmitting  their  character  so  truly 
that  Colonel  Humphreys  ^^  never  heard  of  "  but  one  question- 
able case"  of  an  ancon  ram  and  ewe  not  producing  ancon 
offspring.  When  they  are  crossed  with  other  breeds  the 
offspring,  with  rare  exceptions,  instead  of  being  intermediate 
in  character,  perfectly  resemble  either  parent;  even  one  of 
twins  has  resembled  one  parent  and  the  second  the  other. 
Lastly,  "  the  ancons  have  been  observed  to  keep  together, 
separating  themselves  from  the  rest  of  the  flock  when  put 
into  enclosures  with  other  sheep." 

A  more  interesting  case  has  been  recorded  in  the  Ecport  of 
the.  Juries  for  the  Great  Exhibition  (1851),  namely,  the  pro- 
duction of  a  merino  ram-lamb  on  the  Mauchamp  farm,  in  1828, 
which  v/as  remarkable  for  its  long,  smooth,  straight,  and  silky 
wool.  By  the  year  1833  M.  Graux  had  raised  rams  enough  to 
serve  his  whole  flock,  and  after  a  few  more  years  he  was  able 
to  sell  stock  of  his  new  breed.  So  peculiar  and  valuable  is  the 
wool,  that  it  sells  at  25  per  cent,  above  the  best  merino  wool : 

25  'Journal  of   R.  Agricult.  Soc.  of  ®^ 'Philosoph.  Transactions,' Loadou, 

England,'    vol.    xi ,    ^ -rt    ii.,  W.    C.        1813,  p.  88. 
Spooner  on  cross-Breeding. 


Chap.  III.  GOATS.  105 

even  the  fleeces  of  half-bred  animals  are  valuable,  and  are 
known  in  France  as  the  "  Manchamp-merino."  It  is  inter- 
esting, as  showing  how  generally  any  marked  deviation  of 
structure  is  accompanied  by  other  deviations,  that  the  first 
ram  and  his  immediate  offspring  were  of  small  size,  with 
large  heads,  long  necks,  narrow  chests,  and  long  flanks ;  but 
these  blemishes  were  removed  by  judicious  crosses  and  selec- 
tion. The  long  smooth  wool  was  also  correlated  with  smooth 
horns;  and  as  horns  and  hair  are  homologous  structures. 
we  can  understand  the  meaning  of  this  correlation.  If  the 
Mauchamp  and  ancon  breeds  had  originated  a  century  or  two 
ago,  we  should  have  had  no  record  of  their  birth ;  and  many 
a  naturalist  would  no  doubt  have  insisted,  especially  in  the 
case  of  the  Mauchamp  race,  that  they  had  each  descended 
from,  or  been  crossed  with,  some  unknown  aboriginal  form. 

Goats. 

From  the  recent  researches  of  M.  Brandt,  most  naturalists  now 
believe  that  all  our  goats  are  descended  from  the  Capra  oBgagrus 
of  the  mountains  of  Asia,  possibly  mingled  with  the  allied 
Indian  species  C.  falconeri  of  India. ^^  In  Switzerland,  during 
the  neolithic  period,  the  domestic  goat  was  commoner  than  the 
sheep ;  and  this  very  ancient  race  differed  in  no  respect  from 
that  now  common  in  Switzerland.^^  At  the  present  time,  the 
many  races  found  in  several  parts  of  the  world  differ  greatly 
from  each  other  ;  nevertheless,  as  far  as  they  have  been  tried,^^ 
they  are  all  quite  fertile  when  crossed.  So  numerous  are  the 
breeds,  that  Mr.  G.  Clark  ^°°  has  described  eight  distinct  kinds 
imported  into  the  one  island  of  Mauritius.  The  ears  of  one 
kind  were  enormously  developed,  being,  as  measured  by 
Mr.  Clark,  no  less  than  19  inches  in  length  and  4^  inches  in 
breadth.  As  with  cattle,  the  mammae  of  those  breeds  which 
are  regularly   milked    become    greatly  developed;    and,  as 

^^  Isidore     Geoffroy     St.     Hilaire,  ^*  Riitimeyer,  *  Pfahlbauten,'s.  127. 

°  Hist.  Nat.  Generale,*  torn.  iii.  p.  87.  ^®  Godron,  '  De  I'Espfece,'  torn.  i.  p, 

Mr,  Blyth  ('Land  and  Water,'  1867,  402. 

p.  37)  has  arrived  at  a  similar  con-  ***  'Annals    and    Mag.     of    Nat 

elusion,   but   he  thinks  that    certain  History,'  vol.   ii.  (2nd  series),   184?, 

Eastern  laces  may  perhaps  be  in  part  p.  363. 
descended  from  the  Asiatic  raarkhor. 


106  GOATS.  Chap.  Ill 

Mr.  Clark  remarks,  "  it  is  not  rare  to  see  their  teats  touching 
the  ground."  The  following  cases  are  worth  notice  as  pre- 
senting unusual  points  of  variation.  According  to  Godron,^"^ 
the  mammae  differ  greatly  in  shape  in  different  breeds,  being 
elongated  in  the  common  goat,  hemispherical  in  the  Angorj* 
race,  and  bilobed  and  divergent  in  the  goats  of  Syria  and 
Kubia.  According  to  this  same  author,  the  males  of  certain 
breeds  have  lost  their  usual  offensive  odour.  In  one  of  the 
Indian  breeds  the  males  and  females  have  horns  of  widely- 
different  shapes  ;  ^°^  and  in  some  breeds  the  females  are  desti- 
tute of  horns. ^"^  M.  Eamu  of  Nancy  informs  me  that  many 
of  the  goats  there  bear  on  the  upper  part  of  the  throat  a  pair 
of  hairy  appendages,  70  mm.  in  length  and  about  10  mm. 
in  diameter,  which  in  external  appearance  resemble  those 
above  described  on  the  jaws  of  pigs.  The  presence  of  inter- 
digital  pits  or  glands  on  all  four  feet  has  been  thought  to 
characterise  the  genus  Ovis,  and  their  absence  to  be  charac- 
teristic of  the  genus  Capra  ;  but  Mr.  Hodgson  has  found  that 
they  exist  in  the  front  feet  of  the  majority  of  Himalayan 
goats. ^°*  Mr,  Hodgson  measured  the  intestines  in  two  goats  of 
the  Diigu  race,  and  he  found  that  the  proportional  length  of  the 
great  and  small  intestines  differed  considerably.  In  one  of  these 
goats  the  caecum  was  thirteen  inches,  and  in  the  other  no  less 
than  thirty-six  inches  in  length  ! 

101 'De   I'Espece,'  torn.   i.  p.   406.  descent  from    distinct  species:    for 

Mr.  Clark  also  refers  to  differences  in  Mr.  Clark  states  that  this  part  varies 

the  shape  of  the  mammae.     Gordon  much  in  form. 

states  that  in  the  Nubian  race  the  "2  Mr.  Clark,  'Annals  and  Mag. 

scrotum  is  divided  into  two  lobes;  of  Nat.  Hist.,'  vol.  ii.  (2nd  series), 

and  Mr.  Clark  gives  a  ludicrous  proof  1848,  p.  361. 

of  this  fact,  for  he  saw  in  the  Mauri-  103  Desmarest, '  Encyclop.  Method, 

tius  a  male  goat  of  the  Muscat  breed  Mammalogie,'  p.  480. 
pm-chased  at  a  high  price  for  a  female  io4  '  journal    of    Asiatic    Soc.    of 

in  full  milk.     These  differences  in  Bengi?!,'    vol.   xvi.,   1847,    pp.   1020, 

the  scrotum  are  probably  not  due  to  1025. 


Chap.  IV.  RABBITS:   THEIR  PARENTAGE.  107 


CHAPTER  IV. 

DOMESTIC   RABBITS. 

DOMESTIC  RABBITS   DESCENDED    FROM    THE    COMMON  WILD  RABBIT — ANCIENT 

DOMESTICATION ANCIENT     SELECTION  —  LARGE     LOP-EARED     RABBITS^ 

VARIOUS  BREEDS — FLUCTUATING  CHARACTERS — ORIGIN  OF  THE  HIMALAYAN 

BREED CURIOUS     CASE     OF     INHERITANCE — FERAL     RABBITS     IN     JAMAICA 

AND  THE  FALKLAND  ISLANDS — ^PORTO  SANTO  FERAL  RABBITS — OSTEO- 
LOGICAL  CHARACTERS — SKULL — SKULL  OP  HALF-LOP  RABBITS — VARIATIONS 
IN  THE  SKULL  ANALOGOUS  TO  DIFFERENCES  IN  DIFFERENT  SPECIES  OF 
HARES — VERTEBRA — STERNUM — SCAPULA — EFFECTS  OF  USE  AND  DISUSE 
ON  THE  PROPORTIONS  OF  THE  LIMBS  AND  BODY — CAPACITY  OF  THE 
SKULT.  AND  REDUCED  SIZE  OF  THE  BRAIN — SUMMARY  ON  THE  MODIFICA- 
TIONS  OF   DOMESTICATED    RABBITS. 

All  naturalists,  with,  as  far  as  I  know,  a  single  exception, 
believe  that  the  several  domestic  breeds  of  the  rabbit  are  de- 
scended from  the  common  wild  species  ;  I  shall  therefore 
describe  them  more  carefully  than  in  the  previous  cases. 
Professor  Gervais  ^  states  "  that  the  true  wild  rabbit  is  smaller 
than  the  domestic;  its  proportions  are  not  absolutely  the 
same ;  its  tail  is  smaller ;  its  ears  are  shorter  and  more 
thickly  clothed  with  hair ;  and  these  characters,  without 
speaking  of  colour,  are  so  many  indications  opposed  to  the 
opinion  which  unites  these  animals  under  the  same  specific 
denomination."  Few  naturalists  will  agree  with  this  author 
that  such  slight  differences  are  sufficient  to  separate  as 
distinct  species  the  wild  and  domestic  rabbit.  How  extra- 
ordinary it  would  be,  if  close  confinement,  perfect  tameness, 
unnatural  food,  and  careful  breeding,  all  prolonged  during 
many  generations,  had  not  produced  at  least  some  effect ! 
The  tame  rabbit  has  been  domesticated  from  an  ancient  period. 
Confucius  ranges  rabbits  among  animals  worthy  to  be  sacri- 
ficed to  the  gods,  and,  as  he  prescribes  their  multiplication, 
they  were  probably  at  this  early  period  domesticated  in  China. 
They  are  mentioned  by  several  of  the  classical  writers.     In 

*  M.  P.  Gervais,  *Hist.  Nat.  des  Mammif^res,'  1854,  torn,  i.,  p.  288. 


108  DOMESTIC    RABBITS  :  Chap.  17. 

1631  Gervaise  Markham  writes,  "  You  shall  not,  as  in  other 
cattell,  looke  to  their  shape,  but  to  their  riclinesse,  onely  elect 
your  buckes,  the  largest  and  goodliest  conies  you  can  get ; 
and  for  the  riclinesse  of  the  skin,  that  is  accounted  the 
richest  which  hath  the  equallest  mixture  of  blacke  and  white 
haire  together,  yet  the  blacke  rather  shadowing  the  white ;  the 

furre  should  be  thicke,  deepe,  smooth,  and  shining ; 

they  are  of  body  much  fatter  and  larger,  and,  when  anothei 
skin  is  worth  two  or  three  pence,  they  are  worth  two  shillings." 
From  this  full  description  we  see  that  silver  -  grey  rabbits 
existed  in  England  at  this  period  ;  and  what  is  far  more 
important,  we  see  that  the  breeding  or  selection  of  rabbits  was 
then  carefully  attended  to.  Aldrovandi,  in  1637,  describes, 
on  the  authority  of  several  old  writers  (as  Scaliger,  in  1557), 
rabbits  of  various  colours,  some  "  like  a  hare,"  and  he  adds  that 
P.  Valerianus  (who  died  a  very  old  man  in  1558)  saw  at 
Verona  rabbits  four  times  bigger  than  ours.^ 

From  the  fact  of  the  rabbit  having  been  domesticated  at  an 
ancient  period,  we  must  look  to  the  northern  hemisphere  of  the 
Old  World,  and  to  the  warmer  temperate  regions  alone,  for 
the  aboriginal  parent-form ;  for  the  rabbit  cannot  live  without 
protection  in  countries  as  cold  as  Sweden,  and,  though  it  has 
run  wild  in  the  tropical  island  of  Jamaica,  it  has  never  greatly 
multiplied  there.  It  now  exists,  and  has  long  existed,  in  the 
warmer  temperate  parts  of  Europe,  for  fossil  remains  have  been 
found  in  several  countries.^  The  domestic  rabbit  readily 
becomes  feral  in  these  same  countries,  and  when  variously 
coloured  kinds  are  turned  out  they  generally  revert  to  the 
ordinary  grey  colour.*  Wild  rabbits,  if  taken  young,  can  be 
domesticated,  though  the  process  is  generally  very  trouble- 
some.^    The  various  domestic  races  are  often  crossed,  and  are 

2  U.  Aldrovandi,  '  De  Quadruped!-  lands,'  1801,  b.  i.  p.  1133.  I  have  re- 
bus dio-itatis,'  1637,  p.  383.  For  Con-  ceived  similar  accounts  with  respect 
fucius  and  G.  Markham,  see  a  writer       to  England  and  Scotland. 

who    has    studied    the    subject,    in  st  pigeons  and  Eabbits,'  by  E.  S. 

'Cottage  Gardener,' Jan.  22nd,  1861,  Delamer,   1854,  p.   133.     Sir  J.  Se- 

p.  250.  bright   ('  Observations   on  Instinct,' 

3  Owen, '  British  Fossil  Mammals,'  1836,  p.  10)  speaks  most  strongly  on 
p.  212.  the  difficulty.     But  this  difficulty  is 

4  Bechstein, '  ISTaturgesch.  Deutsch-  not  invariable,  as  I  have  received  two 


Cha>.  IV.  THEIR    VARIATION.  109 

believed  to  be  quite  fertile  together,  and  a  perfect  gradation 
can  be  shown  to  exist  from  the  largest  domestic  kinds,  having 
enormously  developed  ears,  to  the  common  wild  kind.  The 
parent-form  must  have  been  a  burrowing  animal,  a  habit  not 
common,  as  far  as  I  can  discover,  to  any  other  species  in  tlie 
large  genus  Lepus.  Only  one  wild  species  is  known  with 
certain t}^  to  exist  in  Europe  ;  but  the  rabbit  (if  it  b6  a  true 
rabbit)  from  Mount  Sinai,  and  likewise  that  from  Algeria, 
present  slight  differences ;  and  these  forms  have  been  con- 
sidered by  some  authors  as  specifically  distinct.  •"  But  such 
slight  differences  would  aid  us  little  in  explaining  the  more 
considerable  differences  characteristic  of  the  several  domestic 
races.  If  the  latter  are  the  descendants  of  two  or  more  closely 
allied  species,  these,  with  the  exception  of  the  common  rabbit, 
have  been  exterminated  in  a  wild  state  ;  and  this  is  very  im- 
probable, seeing  with  what  pertinacity  this  animal  holds  its 
ground.  From  these  several  reasons  we  may  infer  with 
safety  that  all  the  domestic  breeds  are  the  descendants  of  the 
common  wild  species.  But  from  what  we  hear  of  the  mar- 
vellous success  in  France  in  rearing  hybrids  between  the 
hare  and  rabbit,*^  it  is  possible,  though  not  probable,  from  the 
great  difficulty  in  making  the  first  cross,  that  some  of  the 
larger  races,  which  are  coloured  like  the  hare,  may  have  been 
modified  by  crosses  with  this  animal.  Nevertheless,  the  chief 
differences  in  the  skeletons  of  the  several  domestic  breeds 
cannot,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  have  been  derived  from  a 
cross  with  the  hare. 

There  are  many  breeds  which  transmit  their  characters 
more  or  less  truly.  Every  one  has  seen  the  enormous  lop- 
eared  rabbits  exhibited  at  our  shows  ;  various  allied  sub- 
breeds  are  reared  on  the  Continent,  such  as  the  so-called 
Andalusian,  which  is  said  to  have  a  large  head  with  a  round 
forehead,  and  to  attain  a  greater  size  than  any  other  kind  ; 
another  large  Paris  breed  is  named  the  Eouennais,  and  has  a 


accounts  of  perfect  success  in  taming  feres,'  torn.  i.  p.  292. 
and  breeding  from  the  vvild  rabbit.  "<  See    Dr.   P.   Broca's    interesting 
ISee  also  Dr.  F.  Broca,  in  '  Journal  de  memoir  on  this  subject  in  Brown- 
la  Fhysiologie,"  torn.  ii.  p.  368.  S^quard's  '  Journ.  de  Fhys.,'  vol.  ii. 
6  Gei'vais, '  Hist,  Nat.  des  Mammi-  p.  367. 


no  DOMESTIC  babbits:  Chap.  IV 

square  liead ;  the  so-called  Patagonian  rabLit  has  remarkably 
short  ears  and  a  large  round  head.  Although  I  have  not  seen 
all  these  breeds,  I  feel  some  doubt  about  there  being  any  marked 
difference  in  the  shape  of  their  skulls.^  English  lop-eared 
rabbits  often  weigh  8  lbs.  or  10  lbs.,  and  one  has  been  ex- 
hibited weighing  18  lbs. ;  whereas  a  full-sized  wild  rabbit 
weighs  only  about  3^  lbs.  The  head  or  !^kull  in  all  the  large 
lop-eared  rabbits  examined  by  me  is  much  longer  relatively 
to  its  breadth  than  in  the  wild  rabbit.  Many  of  them  have 
loose  transverse  folds  of  skin  or  dewlaps  beneath  the  throat, 
which  can  be  pulled  out  so  as  to  reach  nearly  to  the  ends  of 
the  jaws.  Their  ears  are  prodigiously  developed,  and  hang 
down  on  each  side  of  their  faces.  A  rabbit  was  exhibited  in 
1867  with  its  two  ears,  measured  from  the  tip  of  one  to  the 
tip  of  the  other,  22  inches  in  length,  and  each  ear  5|  inches 
in  breadth.  In  1869  one  was  exhibited  with  ears,  measured 
in  the  same  manner,  23 1-  in  length  and  5i  in  breadth;  "  thus 
exceeding  any  rabbit  ever  exhibited  at  a  prize  show."  In  a 
common  wild  rabbit  I  found  that  the  length  of  two  ears, 
from  tip  to  tip,  was  7|  inches,  and  the  breadth  only  1|  inch. 
The  weight  of  body  in  the  larger  rabbits,  and  the  development 
of  their  ears,  are  the  qualities  which  win  prizes,  and  have 
been  carefully  selected. 

The  hare-coloured,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the  Belgian 
rabbit,  differs  in  nothing  except  colour  from  the  other  large 
breeds ;  but  Mr.  J.  Young,  of  Southampton,  a  great  breeder  of 
this  kind,  informs  me  that  the  females,  in  all  the  specimens 
examined  by  him,  had  only  six  mammae ;  and  this  certainly 
was  the  case  with  two  females  which  came  into  my  pos- 
session. Mr.  B.  P.  Brent,  however,  assures  me  that  the 
number  is  variable  with  other  domestic  rabbits.  The  common 
wild  rabbit  always  has  ten  mammae.  The  Angora  rabbit  is 
remarkable  from  the  length  and  fineness  of  its  fur,  which 
even  on  the  soles  of  the  feet  is  of  considerable  length.  This 
breed  is  the  only  one  which  differs  in  its  mental  qualities, 
for  it  is  said  to  be  much  more  sociable  than  other  rabbits,  and 

8  The  skulls  of  these  breeds  are       Horticulture,'  May  7th,  1861,  p.  108. 
briefly  described  in  the  '  Journal  of 


Chat.  rV.  THEIR   VAEIATTON.  Ill 

the  male  shows  no  wish  to  destroy  its  young.^  Two  live 
rabbits  were  brought  to  me  from  Moscow,  of  about  the  size  of 
the  wild  species,  biit  with  long  soft  fur,  different  from  that 
of  the  Angora.  These  Moscow  rabbits  had  pink  eyes  and 
were  snow-white,  excepting  the  ears,  two  spots  near  the  nose, 
the  upper  and  under  surface  of  the  tail,  and  the  hinder  tarsi, 
which  were  blackish-brown.  In  short,  they  were  coloured 
nearly  like  the  so-called  Himalayan  rabbits,  presently  to  be 
described,  and  differed  from  them  only  in  the  character  of 
their  fur.  There  are  two  other  breeds  which  come  true  to 
colour,  but  differ  in  no  other  respect,  namely  silver-greys  and 
chinchillas.  Lastly,  the  Nicard  or  Dutch  rabbit  may  be 
mentioned,  which  varies  in  colour,  and  is  remarkable  from 
its  small  size,  some  specimens  weighing  only  li  lb. ;  rabbits 
of  this  breed  make  excellent  nurses  for  other  and  more 
delicate  kinds. ^° 

Certain  characters  are  remarkably  fluctuating,  or  are  very 
feebly  transmitted  by  domestic  rabbits  :  thus,  one  breeder 
tells  me  that  with  the  smaller  kinds  he  has  hardly  exer 
raised  a  whole  litter  of  the  same  colour :  with  the  large  lop- 
eared  breeds  "  it  is  impossible,"  says  a  great  judge,^^  "  to  breed 
true  to  colour,  but  by  judicious  crossing  a  great  deal  may  be 
done  towards  it.  The  fancier  should  know  how  his  does  are 
bred,  that  is,  the  colour  of  their  parents."  Nevertheless, 
certain  colours,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  are  transmitted 
truly.  The  dewlap  is  not  strictly  inherited.  Lop-eared 
rabbits,  with  their  ears  hanging  down  flat  on  each  side  of 
the  face,  do  not  transmit  this  character  at  all  truly.  Mr. 
Delamer  remarks  that,  "  with  fancy  rabbits,  when  both  the 
parents  are  j)erfectly  formed,  have  model  ears,  and  are 
handsomely  marked,  their  progeny  do  not  invariably  turn 
out  the  same."  When  one  parent,  or  even  both,  are  oar- 
laps,  that  is,  have  their  ears  sticking  out  at  right  angles, 
or  when  one  parent  or  both  are  half-lops,  that  is,  have  only 

'  'Journal  of  Horticulture,'  1861,  p.  327.     With  respect  to  the  ears,  see 

p.  380.  Delamer   on  '  Pigeons    and    liabbits,' 

*"  'Journal  of  Horticulture,'  May  1854,  p.  141;  also  *  Poultrv  Ohroni- 

28th,  1861,  p.  169.  cle,'  vol.  ii.  p.  499,  and  ditto'for  1854. 


11   < 


Journal  of  Horticulture,'  1861,       p.  586. 


112 


DOMESTIC    BABBITS  : 


Chap.  IV. 


one  ear  dependent,  there  is  nearly  as  good  a  cliance  of  the 
progeny  having  both  ears  full-lop,  as  if  both  parents  had 
iDeen  thus  characterized.  But  I  am  informed,  if  both  parents 
have  upright  ears,  there  is  hardly  a  chance  of  a  full-lop.  In 
some  half- lops  the  ear  that  hangs  down  is  broader  and  longer 
than  the  upright  ear ;  ^^  so  that  we  have  the  unusual  case  of 
a  want  of  symmetry  on  the  two  sides.  This  difference  in  the 
position  and  size  of  the  two  ears  probably  indicates  that  the 
lopping  results  from  the  great  length  and  weight  of  the  ear, 


Fig  5.— Half-lop  Rabbit.     (Copied  from  E.  S.  Delamei-'s  work.) 

favoured  no  doubt  by  the  weakness  of  the  muscles  consequent 
on  disuse.  Anderson  ^^  mentions  a  breed  having  only  a 
single  ear ;  and  Professor  Gervais  another  breed  destitute  of 
ears. 

We  come  now  to  the  Himalayan  breed,  which  is  sometimes 
called  Chinese,  Polish,  or  Eussian.  These  pretty  rabbits  are 
white,  or  occasionally  yellow,  excepting  their  ears,  nose, 
feet,  and  the  upper  side  of  the  tail,  which  are  all  brownish- 
black  ;  but  as  they  have  red  eyes,  they  may  be  considered  as 


^^  Delamer,  '  Pigeons  and  Rabbits, 
p.  136,  See  also  '  Journal  of  Horti- 
culture,' 1861,  p.  375. 


^^  '  An  Account  of  the  different 
Kinds  of  Sheep  in  the  Russian  Domi' 
nions,'  1794,  p.  39. 


CHi^P.  lY.  THE    HIMALAYAN    BREED.  113 

albinoes.  I  have  received  several  accounts  of  their  breeding 
perfectly  true.  From  their  symmetrical  marks,  they  were 
at  first  ranked  as  specifically  distinct,  and  were  provisionally 
named  L.  nigrijpes}^  Some  good  observers  thought  that  they 
could  detect  a  difference  in  their  habits,  and  stoutly  maintained 
that  they  formed  a  new  species.  The  origin  of  this  breed  is 
so  curious,  both  in  itself  and  as  throwing  some  light  on  the 
complex  laws  of  inheritance  that  it  is  worth  giving  in  detail. 
But  it  is  first  necessary  briefly  to  describe  two  other  breeds : 
silver-greys  or  silver-sprigs  generally  have  black  heads  and 
legs,  and  their  fine  grey  fur  is  interspersed  with  numerous 
black  and  white  long  hairs.  They  breed  perfectly  true,  and 
have  long  been  kept  in  warrens.  When  they  escape  and 
cross  with  common  rabbits,  the  product,  as  I  hear  from  Mr. 
Wyrley  Birch,  of  Wretham  Hall,  is  not  a  mixture  of  the  two 
colours,  but  about  half  take  after  the  one  parent,  and  tho 
other  half  after  the  other  parent.  Secondly,  chinchillas  or 
tame  silver-greys  (I  will  use  the  former  name)  have  short, 
paler,  mouse  or  slate-coloured  fur,  interspersed  with  long, 
blackish,  slate-coloured,  and  white  hairs. ^^  These  rabbits 
breed  perfectly  true.  A  writer  stated  in  1857^^  that  he  had 
produced  Himalayan  rabbits  in  the  following  manner.  He 
had  a  breed  of  chinchillas  which  had  been  crossed  with  the 
common  black  rabbit,  and  their  offspring  were  either  blacks 
or  chinchillas.  These  latter  were  again  crossed  with  other 
chinchillas  (which  had  also  been  crossed  with  silver-greys), 
and  from  this  complicated  cross  Himalayan  rabbits  were 
raised.  From  these  and  other  similar  statements,  Mr. 
Bartlett^^  was  led  to  make  a  careful  trial  in  the  Zoological 
Gardens,  and  he  found  that  by  simply  crossing  silver-greys 
with  chinchillas  he  could  always  produce  some  few  Hima- 
layans ;  and  the  latter,  notwithstanding  their  sudden  origin, 
if  kept  separate,  bred  perfectly  true.  But  I  have  recentl}' 
been  assured  the  pure  silver-greys  of  any  sub-breed  occasion 
ally  produce  Himalayans. 

»«  '  Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,'  June  23rd.,  »«  '  Cottage  Gardener,'  1857,  p.  Ul 

1857,  p.  159.  "  Mr.  Bartlett,  in  *  Proc.  Zoolog 

15  '  Journal  of  Horticulture,' April  Soc' 1861,  p.    40, 
9th,  1861,  p.  35. 


114  DOMESTIC   RABBITS:  Chap  IY. 

The  Himalayans,  when  first  born,  are  quite  white,  and  are 
then  true  albinoes ;  but  in  the  course  of  a  few  months  they 
gradually  assume  their  dark  ears,  nose,  feet,  and  tail.     Occ  t- 
sionally,  however,   as  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  W.  A.  Wooler 
and  the  Eev.  W.  D.  Fox,  the  young  are  born  of  a  very  pale 
grey  colour,  and  specimens  of  such  fur  were  sent  me  by  the 
former   gentleman.      The  grey  tint,  however,  disappears  as 
the   animal  comes  to  maturity.     So  that  with  these  Hima- 
layans there  is  a  tendency,  strictly  confined  to  early  youth, 
to  revert  to  the  colour  of  the  adult  silver-grey  parent-stock. 
Silver-greys  and  chinchillas,  on  the  other  hand,  present  a  re- 
markable contrast  with  the  Himalayans  in  their  colour  whilst 
quite  young,  for  they  are  born  perfectly  black,  but  soon  assume 
their  characteristic  grey  or  silver  tints.    The  same  thing  occurs 
with  grey  horses,  which,  as  long  as  they  are  foals,  are  generally 
of  a  nearly  black  colour,  but  soon  become  grey,  and  get  whiter 
and  whiter  as  they  grow  older.     Hence  the  usual  rule  is  that 
Himalayans  are  born  white  and  afterwards  become  in  certain 
parts  of  their  bodies  dark-coloured  •  whilst  silver-greys  are 
born   black   and   afterwards   become   sprinkled  with  white. 
Exceptions,    how^ever,    and    of    a   directly   opposite    nature, 
occasionally  occur   in  both  cases.      For  j^oung  silver-greys 
are  sometimes  born  in  warrens,  as  I  hear  from  Mr.  W.  Birch, 
of  a  cream-colour,  but  these  young  animals  ultimately  become 
black.    The  Himalayans,  on  the  other  hand,  sometimes  produce, 
as  is  stated  by  an  experienced  amateur,^^  a  single  black  young 
one  in  a  litter ;  and  this,  before  two  months  elapse,  becomes 
perfectly  white. 

To  sum  up  the  whole  curious  case :  wild  silver-grej's  may 
be  considered  as  black  rabbits  which  become  grey  at  an  early 
period  of  life.  When  they  are  crossed  with  common  rabbits, 
the  offspring  are  said  not  to  have  blended  colours,  but  to  take 
after  either  parent ;  and  in  this  respect  they  resemble  black 
and  albino  varieties  of  most  quadrupeds,  which  often  transmit 
their  colours  in  this  same  manner.  When  they  are  crossed 
with  chinchillas,  that  is,  with  a  paler  sub-variety,  the  young 
are  at  first  pure  albinoes,  but  soon  become  dark-coloured  in 

1*  *  Phenomenon  in  Himalayan  Rabbits,'  in  '  Journal  of  Horticulture,'  Jmi, 
27th,  1865,  p.  102 


Chap.  IV.  THE   HIMALAYAN  BREED.  115 

certain  parts  of  their  bodies,  and  are  tlien  called  Himalajans. 
The  young  Himalayans,  however,  are  sometimes  at  first 
either  pale  grey  or  completely  black,  in  either  case  changing 
after  a  time  to  white.  In  a  future  chapter  I  shall  advance 
a  large  body  of  facts  showing  that,  when  two  varieties  are 
crossed  both  of  which  differ  in  colour  from  their  parent-stock, 
til  ere  is  a  strong  tendency  in  the  young  to  revert  to  the 
aboriginal  colour ;  and  what  is  very  remarkable,  this  reversion 
occasionally  supervenes,  not  before  birth,  but  during  the 
growth  of  the  animal.  Hence,  if  it  could  be  shown  that 
silver-greys  and  chinchillas  were  the  offsjoring  of  a  cross 
between  a  black  and  albino  variety  with  the  colours  intimately 
blended — a  supposition  in  itself  not  improbable,  and  supported 
by  the  circumstance  of  silver-greys  in  warrens  sometimes  pro- 
ducing creamy- white  young,  which  ultimately  become  black — 
then  all  the  above  given  paradoxical  facts  on  the  changes  of 
colour  in  silver-greys  and  in  their  descendants  the  Himalayans 
would  come  under  the  law  of  reversion,  supervening  at  dif- 
ferent periods  of  growth  and  in  different  degrees,  either  to  the 
original  black  or  to  the  original  albino  parent-variety. 

It  is,  also,  remarkable  that  Himalayans,  though  produced 
so  suddenly,  breed  true.  But  as,  whilst  young,  they  are 
albinoes,  the  case  falls  under  a  very  general  rule ;  albinism 
being  well  known  to  be  strongly  inherited,  for  instance  with 
white  mice  and  many  other  quadrupeds,  and  even  white 
flowers.  But  why,  it  may  be  asked,  do  the  ears,  tail,  nose, 
and  feet,  and  no  other  part  of  the  body,  revert  to  a  black 
colour?  This  apparently  depends  on  a  law,  which  generally 
holds  good,  namely,  that  characters  common  to  many  sjDecies 
of  a  genus — and  this,  in  fact,  implies  long  inheritance  from 
the  ancient  progenitor  of  the  genus — are  found  to  resist 
variation,  or  to  reappear  if  lost,  more  persistently  than  the 
characters  which  are  confined  to  the  separate  species.  Now, 
in  the  genus  Lepus,  a  large  majority  of  the  species  have  their 
ears  and  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail  tinted  black ;  but  the 
persistence  of  these  marks  is  best  seen  in  those  species  which 
in  winter  become  white  :  thus,  in  Scotland  the  L.  variabilis  ^^ 

"  G.  R.  Watorhouse,  *  Natural  History  of  Mammalia  :  Rodents,'  lSi6,  pp.  52^ 
60,  105. 


116  DOMESTIC   EABBITS.  Chap  IV. 

in  its  winter  dress  has  a  sliade  of  colour  on  its  nose,  and  the 
tips  of  its  ears  are  black  :  in  the  L.  tihetanus  the  ears  are 
black,  the  npper  surface  of  the  tail  greyish-black,  and  the 
Boles  of  the  feet  brown  :  in  L.  glacialis  the  winter  fur  is  pure 
white,  except  the  soles  of  the  feet  and  the  points  of  the  ears. 
Even  in  the  variously- coloured  fancy  rabbits  we  may  often 
observe  a  tendency  in  these  same  parts  to  be  more  darkly 
tinted  than  the  rest  of  the  body.  Thus  the  several  coloured 
marks  on  the  Himalayan  rabbits,  as  they  grow  old,  are 
rendered  intelligible.  I  may  add  a  nearly  analogous  case : 
fancy  rabbits  very  often  have  a  white  star  on  their  foreheads  ; 
and  the  common  English  hare,  whilst  young,  generally  has, 
as  I  have  myself  observed,  a  similar  white  star  on  its 
forehead. 

When  variously  coloured  rabbits  are  set  free  in  Europe,  and 
are  thus  placed  under  their  natural  conditions,  they  generally 
revert  to  the  aboriginal  grey  colour ;  this  may  be  in  part  due 
to  the  tendency  in  all  crossed  animals,  as  lately  observed,  to 
revert  to  their  primordial  state.  But  this  tendency  does  not 
always  prevail ;  thus  silver-grey  rabbits  are  kept  in  warrens, 
and  remain  true  though  living  almost  in  a  state  of  nature ; 
but  a  warren  must  not  be  stocked  with  both  silver-greys  and 
common  rabbits ;  otherwise  "  in  a  few  years  there  will  be 
none  but  common  greys  surviving."^"  When  rabbits  run 
wild  in  foreign  countries  under  new  conditions  of  life,  they 
by  no  means  always  revert  to  their  aboriginal  colour.  In 
Jamaica  the  feral  rabbits  are  described  as  having  been  "  slate- 
coloured,  deeply  tinted  with  sprinklings  of  white  on  the  neck, 
on  the  shoulders,  and  on  the  back ;  softening  off  to  blue- white 
under  the  breast  and  belly."  ^^  But  in  this  tropical  island 
the  conditions  were  not  favourable  to  their  increase,  and  they 
never  spread  widely,  and  are  now  extinct,  as  I  hear  from  Mr. 
E.  Hill,  owing  to  a  great  fire  which  occurred  in  the  woods. 
Eabbits  during  many  years  have  run  wild  in  the  Falkland 

2<*  Delamer  oh  '  Pigeons  and  Rabbits,'  have  become  feral  in  a  hot.  country, 

p.  114.  They  can  be  kept,  however,  atLoanda 

2'  Gosse's    'Sojourn    in   Jamaica,'  (^see  Livingstone's  'Travels,'  p.  407). 

1851,  p.  441,  as  described  by  an   ex-  In  parts  of  India,  as  I  am  informed  by 

cellent  observer,  Mr.  R.  Hill.    This  is  Mr.  Blyth,  they  breed  well, 
the  only  known  case  in  which  rabbits 


Ohaf.  IV.  FERAL    EABBITS.  117 

Islands  ;  ihej  are  abundant  in  certain  parts,  but  do  not 
spread  extensively.  Most  of  them  are  of  the  common  grey 
colour ;  a  few,  as  I  am  informed  by  Admiral  Sulivan,  are 
hare-coloured,  and  many  are  black,  often  with  neaiiy  symme- 
trical white  marks  on  their  faces.  Hence,  M.  Lesson  described 
the  black  variety  as  a  distinct  species,  under  the  name  of 
Lepus  magellanicus,  but  this,  as  I  have  elsewhere  shown,  is  an 
error.^^  Within  recent  times  the  sealers  have  stocked  some 
of  the  small  outlying  islets  in  the  Falkland  group  with 
rabbits ;  and  on  Pebble  Islet,  as  I  hear  from  Admiral  Sulivan, 
a  large  proportion  are  hare-coloured,  whereas  on  Eabbit  Islet 
a  large  proportion  are  of  a  bluish  colour,  which  is  not  else- 
where seen.  Hov/  the  rabbits  were-  coloured  which  were 
turned  out  of  these  islets  is  not  known. 

The  rabbits  which  have  become  feral  on  the  island  of  Porto 
Santo,  near  Madeira,  deserve  a  fuller  account.  In  1418  or 
1419,  J.  Gonzales  Zarco^^  happened  to  have  a  female  rabbit 
on  board  which  had  produced  young  during  the  voyage,  and 
he  turned  them  all  out  on  the  island.  These  animals  soon 
increased  so  rapidly,  that  they  became  a  nuisance,  and  actu- 
ally caused  the  abandonment  of  the  settlement.  Thirty- 
seven  years  subsequently,  Cada  Mosto  describes  them  as 
innumerable ;  nor  is  this  suprising,  as  the  island  was  not 
inhabited  by  any  beast  of  prey  or  by  any  terrestrial  mammal. 
We  do  not  know  the  character  of  the  mother-rabbit ;  but  it 
was  probably  the  common  domesticated  kind.  The  Spanish 
peninsula,  whence  Zarco  sailed,  is  known  to  have  abounded 
with  the  common  wild  species  at  the  most  remote  historical 
period ;  and  as  these  rabbits  were  taken  on  board  for  food,  it 
is  improbable  that  they  should  have  been  of  any  peculiar 
breed.  That  the  breed  was  well  domesticated  is  shown  by 
the  doe  having  littered  during  the  voyage.  Mr.  Wollaston, 
at  my  request,  brought  home  two  of  these  feral  rabbits  in 
spirits  of  wine;  and,  subsequently,  Mr.  W.  Haywood  sent  to 

2- Darwin's  '  Journal  of  Researches,'  Lisbon    in    1717,    entitled    '  Historia 

p.  193  ;  and  '  Zoology  of  the  Voyage  Insulana,'  written    by  a    Jesuit,   the 

of  the  Beagle :   Mammalia,'  p.  92.  rabbits  were  turned  out  .n  1420.  Some 

'^  Kerr's   '  Collection    of  Voyages,'  authors   believe  that  the  island  wa^ 

vol.  ii.  p.  177  :  p.  205  for  Ca/la  Mosto.  discovered  in  1413. 
According    to    a    work    published    in 


118  DOMESTIC   EABBITS.  Chap.  IV. 

me  three  more  specimens  in  brine,  and  two  alive.  Tliese 
seven  specimens,  though  caught  at  different  periods,  closely 
resembled  each  other.  They  were  full  grown,  as  shown  by 
the  state  of  their  bones.  Although  the  conditions  of  life  in 
Porto  Santo  are  evidently  highly  favourable  to  rabbits,  as 
proved  by  their  extraordinarily  rapid  increase,  yet  they  differ 
conspicuously  in  their  small  size  from  the  wild  English 
yabbit.  Four  English  rabbits,  measured  from  the  incisors  to 
the  anus,  varied  between  17  andl7f  inches  in  length;  whilst 
two  of  the  Porto  Santo  rabbits  were  only  14^  and  15  inches 
in  length.  But  the  decrease  in  size  is  best  shown  by  weight ; 
four  wild  English  rabbits  averaged  3  lb.  5  oz.,  whilst  one  of 
the  Porto  Santo  rabbits,  which  had  lived  for  four  j^ears  in  the 
Zoological  (.iardens,  but  had  become  thin,  weighed  only  1  lb. 
9  oz.  A  fairer  test  is  afforded  by  the  comparison  of  the  well- 
clea.ned  limb-bones  of  a  Porto  Santo  rabbit  killed  on  the  island 
with  the  same  bones  of  a  wild  English  rabbit  of  average  size, 
and  they  differed  in  the  proportion  of  rather  less  than  five  to 
nine.  So  that  the  Porto  Santo  rabbits  have  decreased  nearly 
three  inches  in  length,  and  almost  half  in  weight  of  body.^* 
The  head  has  not  decreased  in  length  proportionally  with  the 
body ;  and  the  capacity  of  the  brain  case  is,  as  we  shall 
hereafter  see,  singularly  variable.  I  prepared  four  skulls, 
and  these  resembled  each  other  more  closely  than  do  generally 
the  skulls  of  wild  English  rabbits  ;  but  the  only  difference  in 
structure  which  they  presented  was  that  the  supra-orbital 
processes  of  the  frontal  bones  were  narrower. 

In  colour  the  Porto  Santo  rabbit  differs  considerably  from 
the  common  rabbit ;  the  upper  surface  is  redder,  and  is  rarely 
interspersed  with  any  black  or  black-tipped  hairs.  The 
throat  and  certain  parts  of  the  under  sui'face,  instead  of  being 
pure  white,  are  generally  pale  grey  or  leaden  colour.  But 
the  most  remarkable  difference  is  in  the  ears  and  tail ;  I  have 
examined  many  fresh  English  rabbits,  and  the  large  collection 

2*  Something  of  the  same  kind  has  countryman  turned  out  some  rabbits 

occurred    on    the    island    of    Lipari,  which   multiplied    prodigiously,  but, 

vrhere,     according      to     Spallanzani  says  Spallanzani,  "  les  lapins  dc  I'ilc 

(*  Voyage  dans  les  deux  Siciles,' quoted  de  Lipari   sont   plus  petits  que  ceui 

by  Godrou,  '  De  TEsp^oe,'  p.  364),  a  qu'on  eleve  en  domesticite." 


Chap.  IV.  FERAL   RABBITS.  119 

of  skins  in  the  British.  Museum  from  various  countries,  and 
all  have  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail  and  the  tips  of  the  ears 
clothed  with  blackish-grej^  fur;  and  this  is  given  in  most 
works  as  one  of  the  specific  characters  of  the  rabbit.  Now 
in  the  seven  Porto  Santo  rabbits  the  upper  surface  of  the 
tail  was  reddish-brown,  and  the  tips  of  the  ears  had  no  trace 
of  the  black  edging.  But  here  we  meet  with  a  singular 
circumstance  :  in  June,  1861, 1  examined  two  of  these  rabbits 
recently  sent  to  the  Zoological  Gardens,  and  their  tails  and 
ears  were  coloured  as  just  described ;  but  when  one  of  their 
dead  bodies  was  sent  to  me  in  February,  1865,  the  ears  were 
plainly  edged,  and  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail  was  covered 
with  blackish-grey  fur,  and  the  whole  body  was  much  less 
red  ;  so  that  under  the  English  climate  this  individual  rabbit 
had  recovered  the  proper  colour  of  its  fur  in  rather  less  than 
four  years ! 

The  two  little  Porto  Santo  rabbits,  whilst  alive  in  the  Zoo- 
logical Gardens,  had  a  remarkably  different  appearance  from 
the  common  kind.  They  were  extraordinarily  wild  and  active, 
so  that  many  persons  exclaimed  on  seeing  them  that  they  were 
more  like  large  rats  than  rabbits.  They  were  nocturnal  to 
an  unusual  degree  in  their  habits,  and  their  wildness  was  never 
in  the  least  subdued ;  so  that  the  superintendent,  Mr.  Bartlett, 
assured  me  that  he  had  never  had  a  wilder  animal  under  his 
charge.  This  is  a  singular  fact,  considering  that  they  are  de- 
scended from  a  domesticated  breed.  I  was  so  much  surprised  at 
it,  that  I  requested  Mr.  Haywood  to  make  inquiries  on  the  spot, 
whether  they  were  much  hunted  by  the  inhabitants,  or  per- 
secuted by  hawks,  or  cats,  or  other  animals  ;  but  this  is  not 
the  case,  and  no  cause  can  be  assigned  for  their  wildness. 
They  live  both  on  the  central,  higher  rocky  land  and  near 
the  sea-cliffs,  and,  from  being  exceedingly  shy  and  timid, 
seldom  appear  in  the  lower  and  cultivated  districts.  They 
are  said  to  produce  from  four  to  six  young  at  a  birth,  and 
their  breeding  season  is  in  July  and  August.  Lastly,  and 
this  is  a  highly  remarkable  fact,  Mr.  Bartlett  could  never 
succeed  in  getting  these  two  rabbits,  which  were  both  males, 
to  associate  or  breed  with  the  females  of  several  breeds  which 
wore  repeatedly  placed  w'th  them, 


120  DOMESTIC   EABBITS :  Chap.  IY. 

If  tlie  history  of  tliese  Porto  Santo  rabbits  bad  not  been 
known,  most  naturalists,  on  observing  tbeir  mncb  reduced 
size,  tbeir  colour,  reddisb  above  and  grey  beneath,  their  tails 
and  ears  not  tipped  with  black,  would  have  ranked  them  as  a 
distinct  species.  They  would  have  been  strongly  conjBrmtd 
in  this  view  by  seeing  them  alive  in  the  Zoological  Gardens, 
and  hearing  that  they  refused  to  couple  with  other  rabbits. 
Yet  this  rabbit,  which  there  can  be  little  doubt  would  thus 
have  been  ranked  as  a  distinct  species,  as  certainly  originated 
eince  the  year  1420.  Finall}^,  from  the  three  cases  of  the 
rabbits  which  have  run  wild  in  Porto  Santo,  Jamaica,  and 
the  Falkland  Islands,  we  see  that  these  animals  do  not,  under 
new  conditions  of  life,  revert  to  or  retain  their  aboriginal  cha- 
racter, as  is  so  generally  asserted  to  be  the  case  by  most 
authors. 

Osteological  Characters. 

When  we  remember,  on  the  one  hand,  how  frequently  it  is 
stated  that  important  parts  of  the  structure  never  vary  ;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  on  what  small  differences  in  the  skeleton 
fossil  species  have  often  been  founded,  the  variability  of  the 
skull  and  of  some  other  bones  in  the  domesticated  rabbit  well 
deserves  attention.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  more 
important  differences  immediately  to  be  described  strictly 
characterise  any  one  breed ;  all  that  can  be  said  is,  that  they 
are  generally  present  in  certain  breeds.  We  should  bear  iu 
mind  that  selection  has  not  been  applied  to  fix  any  character 
in  the  skeleton,  and  that  the  animals  have  not  had  to  support 
themselves  under  uniform  habits  of  life.  We  cannot  account 
for  most  of  the  differences  in  the  skeleton ;  but  we  shall  see 
that  the  increased  size  of  the  body,  due  to  careful  nurture  and 
continued  selection,  has  affected  the  head  in  a  particular 
manner.  Even  the  elongation  and  lopping  of  the  ears  have 
influenced  in  a  small  degree  the  form  of  the  whole  skull. 
The  want  of  exercise  has  apparently  modified  the  propor- 
tional length  of  the  limbs  in  comparison  with  that  of  the 
body. 

As  a  standard  of  comparison,  I  prepared  skeletons  of  two  wild 
rabbits  from  Kent,  one  from  the  Shetland  Islands,  and  one  from 


C5HAP.  IV.        DIJTERENCES    IN   THEIR   SKELETONS.  121 

Antrim  in  Ireland.  As  all  the  bones  in  these  four  specimens  from 
such  distant  localities  closely  resembled  each  other,  presenting 
scarcely  any  appreciable  difference,  it  may  be  concluded  that  the 
bones  of  the  wild  rabbit  are  generally  uniform  in  character. 

Skull. — I  have  carefully  examined  skulls  of  ten  large  lop-eared 
rabbits,  and  of  five  common  domestic  rabbits,  which  latter  difier  from 
the  lop-eared  only  in  not  having  such  large  bodies  or  ears,  yet  both 
larger  than  in  the  wild  rabbit.  First  for  the  ten  lop-eared  rabbits  : 
in  all  these  the  skull  is  remarkably  elongated  in  comparison  with 
its  breadth.  In  a  wild  rabbit  the  leng-th  was  3"15  inches,  in  a  large 
fancy  rabbit  4'3 ;  whilst  the  breadth  of  the  cranium  enclosing  the 
brain  was  in  both  almost  exactly  the  same.  Even  by  taking  as  the 
standard  of  comparison  the  widest  part  of  the  zygomatic  arch,  the 
skulls  of  the  lop-eared  are  proportionally  to  their  breadth  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  too  long.  The  depth  of  the  head  has  increased 
almost  in  the  same  proportion  with  the  length ;  it  is  the  breadth 
alone  which  has  not  increased.  The  parietal  and  occipital  bones 
enclosing  the  brain  are  less  arched,  both  in  a  longitudinal  and 
transverse  line,  than  in  the  wild  rabbit,  so  that  the  shape  of  the 
cranium  is  somewhat  different.  The  surface  is  rougher,  less  cleanly 
sculptured,  and  the  lines  of  sutures  are  more  prominent. 

Although  the  skulls  of  the  large  lop-eared  rabbits  in  comparison 
with  those  of  the  wild  rabbit  are  much  elongated  relatively  to  their 
breadth,  yet,  relatively  to  the  size  of  body,  they  are  far  from  elon- 
gated. The  lop-eared  rabbits  which  I  examined  were,  though  not 
fat,  more  than  twice  as  heavy  as  the  wild  specimens ;  but  the  skull 
was  very  far  from  being  twice  as  long.  Even  if  we  take  the  fairer 
standard  of  the  length  of  body,  from  the  nose  to  the  anus,  the  skull 
is  not  on  an  average  as  long  as  it  ought  to  be  by  a  third  of  an  inch. 
In  the  small  feral  Porto  Santo  rabbit,  on  the  other  hand,  the  head 
relatively  to  the  length  of  body  is  about  a  quarter  of  aa  inch  too 
long. 

This  elongation  of  the  skull  relatively  to  its  breadth,  I  find  a 
aniversal  character,  not  only  with  the  large  lop-eared  rabbits,  but 
in  all  the  artificial  breeds ;  as  is  well  seen  in  the  skull  of  the  Angora. 
I  was  at  first  much  surprised  at  the  fact,  and  could  not  imagine  why 
domestication  could  produce  this  uniform  result;  but  the  explana- 
tion seems  to  lie  in  the  circumstance  that  during  a  number  of  gene- 
rations the  artificial  races  have  been  closely  confined,  and  have  had 
little  occasion  to  exert  either  their  senses,  or  intellect,  or  voluntary 
muscles;  consequently  the  brain,  as  we  shall  presently  more  fully 
uee,  has  not  increased  relatively  with  the  size  of  body.  As  the  brain 
has  not  increased,  the  bony  case  enclosing  it  has  not  increased,  and 
this  has  evidently  affected  through  correlation  the  breadth  of  the 
entire  skull  from  end  to  end. 

In  all  the  skulls  of  the  large  lop-eared  rabbits,  the  supra-orbital 
plates  or  processes  of  the  frontal  bones  are  much  broader  than  in 
the  wild  rabbit,  and  they  generally  project  more  upwards.  In  the 
zygomatic  arch  the  posterior  or  projecting  point  of  the  malar-bone 


122 


DOMESTIC  babbits: 


Chap.  IY. 


is  broader  and  Hunter ;  and  in  tlie  specimen,  fig,  8,  it  is  so  in  a 
remarkable  degree.  This  point  approaches  nearer  to  the  auditory 
meatus  than  in  the  wild  rabbit,  as  may  be  best  seen  in  iig.  8 ;  but 
this  circumstance  mainly  depends  on  the  changed  direction  of  the 


Fig.  6.— Skull  of  Wild  Rabbit,  of  natural  size 


Fjg,  7,— SlfuU  of  large  Lop-eared  Rabbit,  of  natura. 
u  size. 


meatus.  The  inter-parietal  bone  (see  fig.  9)  differs  much  in  shape 
in  the  several  skulls;  generally  it  is  more  oval,  that  is  more  ex- 
tended in  the  line  of  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  skull,  than  in  the 
wild  rabbit.     The   posterior  margin  of  "the  square  raised  plat- 


Chap.  IV. 


DIFFERENCES   IN    THEIR   SKELETONS. 


123 


Fig  8. — Part  of  Zygomatic  Arch,  showing  the 
projecting  end  of  the  malar  bune  of  the 
auditory  meatus;  of  natural  size.  Upper 
figure,  Wild  Rabbit.  Lower  figure,  Lop- 
eared,  hare- coloured  Rabbit. 


form"^^  of  the  occiput,  instead  of  being  tnmcated,  or  projecting  slightly 
as  in  the  wild  rabbit,  is  in  most 
lop-eared  rabbits  pointed,  as  in 
fig.  9,  C.  The  paramastoids  rela- 
tively to  the  size  of  the  skull  are 
generally  much  thicker  than  in 
the  wild  rabbit. 

The  occipital  foramen  (fig.  10) 
presents  some  remarkable  differ- 
ences: in  the  wild  rabbit,  the 
lower  edge  between  the  condyles 
is  considerably  and  almost  angu- 
larly hollowed  out,  and  the  upper 
edge  is  deeply  and  squarely 
notched;  hence  the  longitudinal 
axis  exceeds  the  transverse  axis. 
In  the  skulls  of  the  lop-eared 
rabbits  the  transverse  axis  ex- 
ceeds the  longitudinal ;  for  in 
none  of  these  skulls  was  the 
lower  edge  between  the  condyles 
so  deeply  hollowed  out ;  in  five 
of   them    there  was    no    upper 

square  notch,  in  three  there  was  a  trace  of  the  notch,  and  in  two 
alone  it  was  well  developed. 
These  differences  in  the 
shape  of  the  foramen  are 
remarkable,  considering 
that  it  gives  passage  to  so 
important  a  stracture  as 
the  spinal  marrow,  though 
apparently  the  outline  of 
the  latter  is  not  afiected 
by  the  shape  of  the  passage. 

In  all  the  skulls  of  the 
large  lop-eared  rabbits,  the 
bony  auditory  meatus  is  conspicuously  larger  than  in  the  wild 
rabbit.  In  a  skull  4 "3  inches  ^  2 

in  length,  and  which  barely 
exceeded  in  breadth  the 
skull  of  a  wild  rabbit 
(which  was  3'15  inches  in 
length),  the  longer  diameter 
of  the  meatus  was  exactly 
twice  as  great.  The  orifice 
is  more  compressed,  and 
its   margin  on  the  side  nearest  the  skull  stands  up  higher  than 


A 


Fiar.  9. — Posterior  end  of  skull,  of  naturnl  size,  showing 
the  inter-parietal  hone.  A.  Wild  llaljhit.  P>.  Feral 
Rabbit  from  island  of  P.  Santo,  near  Madeira. 
C.  Large  Lop-eared  Rabbit. 


Fig.  10.— Occipital  F(.ramen,  of  natural  size,  in— 
A.  Wild  Rabbit ;  B.  Large  Lop-eared  Rabbit. 


25  Waterhouse,  '  Nat.   Hist.  Mammalia,'  vol.  ii,  p.  36. 


J  24 


DOMESTIC    BABBITS: 


Chap.  IV. 


the  outer  side.  The  whole  meatus  is  directed  more  forwards. 
As  in  breeding  lop-eared  rabbits  the  length  of  the  ears,  and 
their  consequent  lopping  and  lying  flat  on  the  face,  are  the 
chief  points  of  excellence,  there  can  hardly  be   a   doubt  that  the 

great  change  in  the  size, 
form,  and  direction  of  the 
bony  meatus,  relatively  to 
this  same  part  in  the  wild 
rabbit,  is  due  to  the  con- 
tinued selection  of  indi- 
viduals having  larger  and 
larger  ears.  The  influence 
of  the  external  ear  on  the 
bony  meatus  is  well  shown 
in  the  skulls  (I  have  ex- 
amined three)  of  half-lops 
(see  fig.  5),  in  which  one  ear 
stands  upright,  and  the  other 
and  longer  ear  hangs  down; 
for  in  these  skulls  there  was 
a  plain  difierence  in  the 
form  and  direction  of  the 
bony  meatus  on  the  two 
sides.  But  it  is  a  much 
more  interesting  fact,  that 
the  changed  direction  and 
increased  size  of  the  bony 
meatus  have  slightly  affected 
on  the  same  side  the  struc- 
ture of  the  whole  skull.  I 
here  give  a  drawing  (fig.  11) 
of  the  skull  of  a  half-lop  ;  and 
it  may  be  observed  that  the 
suture  between  the  parietal 
and  frontal  bones  does  not 
run  strictly  at  right  angles 
to  the  longitudinal  axis  of 
the  skull,  the  left  frontal 
bone  projects  beyond  the 
right  one  ;   both  the  posterior 

Fig.  11.— Slnill,  of  natural  size,  of  Half-lop  Rabbit,  i    p^fpHor  mnvpinq  of  thp 

showing  the  different  direction  of  the  auditory  f'^P'    anteriOl    maiglUS   OI   Ilie 

meatus  on   the  two  si<ies,  and   the   consequent  left     Zygomatic     arcll    OU   the 

general  distortion  of  the  skull.     The  left  ear  of  ^j^q  ^f  ^J-^g   lopping  ear  Staud 

lo?w"d"''  ^"  "'      "''  "'  "^'""^     ""      a    little    in   advance   of  the 

corresponding  bones  on  the 
opposite  side.  Even  the  lower  jaw  is  aflected,  and  the  condyles  are 
not  quite  symmetrical,  that  on  the  left  standing  a  little  in  advance 
of  that  on  the  right.  This  seems  to  me  a  remarkable  case  of 
correlation  of  growth.    Who  would  have  surmised  that  by  keeping 


Chap.  IY.         DIFFERENCES  IN   THEIR   SKELETONS.  125 

an  animal  during  many  generations  under  confinement,  and  so 
leading  to  the  disuse  of  the  muscles  of  the  ears,  and  by  continually 
selecting  individuals  with  the  longest  and  largest  ears,  he  would 
thus  indirectlj'  have  affected  almost  every  suture  in  the  skull  and 
the  form  of  the  lower  jaw ! 

In  the  large  lop-eared  rabbits  the  only  difference  in  the  lower 
jaw,  in  comparison  with  that  of  the  wild  rabbit,  is  that  the  posterior 
margin  of  the  ascending  ramus  is  broader  and  more  inflected.  The 
teeth  in  neither  jaw  present  any  difference,  except  that  the  small 
incisors,  beneath  the  large  ones,  are  proportionately  a  little  longer. 
The  molar  teeth  have  increased  in  size  proportionately  with  the 
increased  width  of  the  skull,  measured  across  the  zygomatic  arch, 
and  not  proportionally  with  its  increased  length.  The  inner  line  of 
the  sockets  of  the  molar  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw  of  the  wild  rabbit 
forms  a  perfectly  straight  line ;  but  in  some  of  the  largest  skulls  of 
the  lop-eared  this  line  was  plainly  bowed  inwards.  In  one  specimen 
there  was  an  additional  molar  tooth  on  each  side  of  the  upper  jaw, 
between  the  molars  and  premolars ;  but  these  two  teeth  did  not 
correspond  in  size ;  and  as  no  rodent  has  seven  molars,  this  is 
merely  a  monstrosity,  though  a  curious  one. 

The  five  other  skulls  of  common  domestic  rabbits,  some  of  which 
approach  in  size  the  above-described  largest  skulls,  whilst  the 
others  exceed  but  little  those  of  the  wild  rabbit,  are  only  worth 
notice  as  presenting  a  perfect  gradation  in  all  the  above-specified 
differences  between  the  skulls  of  the  largest  lop-eared  and  wild 
rabbits.  In  all,  however,  the  supra-orbital  plates  are  rather  larger, 
and  in  all  the  auditory  meatus  is  larger,  in  conformity  with  the 
increased  size  of  the  external  ears,  than  in  the  wild  rabbit.  The 
lower  notch  in  the  occipital  foramen  in  some  was  not  so  deep  as  in 
the  wild  rabbit,  but  in  all  five  skulls  the  upper  notch  was  well 
developed. 

The  skull  of  the  Angora  rabbit,  like  the  latter  five  skulls,  is  inter- 
mediate m  general  proportions,  and  in  most  other  characters,  between 
those  of  the  largest  lop-eared  and  wild  rabbits.  It  presents  only 
one  singular  character :  though  considerably  longer  than  the  skull 
of  the  wild  rabbit,  the  breadth  measured  within  the  posterior  supra- 
orbital fissures  is  nearly  a  third  less  than  in  the  wild.  The  skulls 
of  the  silver-grey,  and  chinchilla  and  Himalayan  rabbits  are  more 
elongated  than  in  the  wild,  with  broader  supra-orbital  plates,  but 
differ  little  in  any  other  respect,  excepting  that  the  upper  and  lower 
notches  of  the  occipital  foramen  are  not  so  deep  or  so  well  developed. 
I'he  skull  of  the  Moscow  rabbit  scarcely  differs  at  all  from  that  of  the 
wild  rabbit.  In  the  Porto  Santo  feral  rabbits  the  supra-orbital  plates 
are  generally  narrower  and  more  pointed  than  in  our  wild  rabbits. 

As  some  of  the  largest  lop-eared  rabbits  of  which  I  prepared 
skeletons  were  coloured  almost  like  hares,  and  as  these  latter  animals 
and  rabbits  have,  as  it  is  affirmed,  been  recently  crossed  in  Trance, 
it  might  be  thought  that  some  of  the  above-described  characters 
had  been  derived  from  a  cross  at  a  remote  period  with  the  hara 


126 


DOMESTIC   EABBITS: 


Chap.  TV, 


Consequently  I  examined  skulls  of  the  hare,  but  no  light  could  thus 
be  thrown  on  the  peculiarities  of  the  skulls  of  the  larger  rabbits. 
It  is,  however,  an  interesting  fact,  as  illustrating  the  law  that 
varieties  of  one  species  often  assume  the  characters  of  other  species 
of  the  same  genus,  that  I  found,  on  comparing  the  skulls  of  ten 
species  of  hares  in  the  British  Museum,  that  they  differed  from  each 
other  chiefly  in  the  very  same  points  in  which  domestic  rabbits 
vary, — namely,  in  general  proportions,  in  the  form  and  size  of  the 
subra-orbital  plates,  in  the  form  of  the  free  end  of  the  malar  bone, 
and  in  the  line  of  suture  separating  the  occipital  and  frontal  bones. 
Moreover  two  eminently  variable  characters  in  the  domestic  rabbit, 
namely,  the  outline  of  the  occipital  foramen  and  the  shape  of  the 
"  raised  platform  "  of  the  occiput,  were  likewise  variable  in  two 
instances  in  the  same  species  of  hare. 

Vertebrce. — The  number  is  uniform  in  all  the  skeletons  which  I 
have  examined,  with  two  exceptions,  namely,  in  one  of  the  small 
feral  Porto  Santo  rabbits  and  in  one  of  the  largest  lop-eared  kinds ; 
both  of  these  had  as  usual  seven  cervical,  twelve  dorsal  with  ribs, 
but,  instead  of  seven  lumbar,  both  had  eight  lumbar  vertebrae. 
This  is  remarkable,  as  Gervais  gives  seven  as  the  num.ber  for  the 
whole  genus  Lepus.  The  caudal  vertebrae  apparently  dilfer  by 
two  or  three,  but  I  did  not  attend  to  them,  and  they  are  difficult  to 
count  with  certainty. 

In  the  first  cervical  vertebra,  or  atlas,  the  anterior  margin  of  the 
neural  arch  varies  a  little  in  wild  specimens,  being  either  nearly 
smooth,  or  furnished  with  a  small  supra-median  atlantoid  process ; 

I  have  figured  a  specimen  with  the 
largest  process  (a)  which  I  have  seen ; 
but  it  will  be  observed  how  inferior 
this  is  in  size  and  different  in  shape 
to  that  in  a  large  lop-eared  rabbit. 
In  the  latter,  the  infra-median  pro- 
cess (h)  is  also  proportionally  much 
thicker  and  longer.  The  alae  are  a 
little  squarer  in  outline. 

TJrird  cervical  vertebra. — In  the 
wild  rabbit  (fig.  13,  A  a)  this  ver- 
tebra, viewed  on  the  inferior  surface, 
has  a  transverse  process,  which  is 
directed  obliquely  backwards,  and 
consists  of  a  single  pointed  bar ;  in 
the  fourth  vertebra  this  process  is 
slightly  forked  in  the  middle.  In  the 
large  lop-eared  rabbits  this  process 
(b  «  )  is  forked  in  the  third  vertebra, 
as  in  the  fourth  of  the  wild  rabbit. 
But  the  third  cervical  vertebrae  of 
the  wild  and  lop-eared  (a  b,  b  h) 
rabbits  differ  more  conspicuously  when  their  anterior  articular 


Fig.  12. — Atlas  Vertebrae,  of  natural  size ; 
inferior  surface  viewed  obliqut^ly. 
Upper  figure,  Wild  Rabbit.  Lower 
figure,  Hare- coloured,  large.  Lop-eared 
Rabbit,  a,  supra-median,  atlantoid 
process ;  b,  infra-median  process. 


Chap.  lY.        DIFFERENCES   IN   THEIR   SKELETONS. 


127 


Fig.  13. — Third  Cervical  Vertebrfe,  of  natural  size, 
of — A.  Wild  Rabbit;  B.  Hare-coloured,  large, 
Lup-eared  liabbit.  a,  a,  inferior  burface;  b,  b, 
anterior  articular  surfaces. 


have  seen  it  in  two  large  lop-eared 
length  of  that  of  the  second  dorsal 


surfaces  are  compared ;  for  the  extremities  of  the  antero-dorsal  pro- 
cesses in  the  wild  rabbit  are  simply  ronnded,  whilst  iu  the  lop-eared 
they  are  trifid,  with  a  deep 

central    pit.      The    canal  ^  b 

for  the  spinal  marrow  in 
the  lop-eared  (b  h)  is  more 
elongated  in  a  transverse 
direction  than  in  the  wild 
rabbit;  and  the  passages 
for  the  arteries  are  of  a 
slightly  different  shape. 
These  several  differences 
in  this  vertebra  seem  to 
me  well  deserving  atten- 
tion. 

First  dorsal  vertebra. — 
Its  neural  spine  varies  in 
length  in  the  wild  rabbit ; 
being  sometimes  very 
short,  but  generally  more 
than  half  as  long  as  that 
of  the  second  dorsal;  but  I 
rabbits  three- fourths  of  the 
vertebra. 

Ninth  and  tenth  dorsal  verteirce. — In  the  wild  rabbit  the  neural 
spine  of  the  ninth  vertebra  is  just  perceptibly  thicker  than  that  of 
the  eighth ;  and  the  neural  spine  of  the  tenth  is  plainly  thicker  and 
shorter  than  those  of  all  the  anterior  vertebrse.  In  the  large  lop- 
eared  rabbits  the  neural  spines  of  the  tenth,  ninth,  and  eigh  th  vertebrge, 
and  even  in  a  slight  degree  that  of  the  seventh,  are  very  mnch 
thicker,  and  of  somewhat  different  shape,  in  comparison  with  those 
of  the  wild  rabbit.  So  that  this  part  of  the  vertebral  column  differs 
considerably  in  appearance  from  the  same  x^art  in  the  wild  rabbit, 
and  closely  resembles  in  an  interesting  manner  these  same  vertebrae 
in  some  species  of  hares.  In  the  Angora,  Chinchilla,  and  Hima- 
layan rabbits,  the  neural  spines  of  the  eighth  and  ninth  vertebrse 
are  in  a  slight  degree  thicker  than  in  the  wild.  On  the  other  hand, 
in  one  of  the  feral  Porto  Santo  rabbits,  which  in  most  of  its  cha- 
racters deviates  from  the  common  wild  rabbit,  in  a  direction 
exactly  opposite  to  that  assumed  by  the  large  lop-eared  rabbits,  the 
nenral  spines  of  the  ninth  and  tenth  vertebrae  were  not  at  all  larger 
than  those  of  the  several  anterior  vertebrse.  In  this  same  Porto 
Santo  specimen  there  was  no  trace  in  the  ninth  vertebra  of  the 
anterior  lateral  processes  (see  woodcut  14),  which  are  plainly  deve- 
loped in  all  British  wild  rabbits,  and  still  more  plainly  develo]ied 
in  the  large  lop-eared  rabbits.  In  a  'half-wild  rabbit  from  Sandon 
Park,^^  a  hsemal  spine  was  moderately  well  developed  on  the  under 


^^  These  rabbits  have  run  wild  for 
a  considerable  time  in  Sandou  Park, 


and   in  other  places   in   Staffordshire 
and  Shropshire.     They  oi-iginated,  as 


/ 


128 


DOMESTIC  rabbits: 


Chap  IY. 


side  of  the  twelfth  dorsal  verteLra,  and  I  have  seen  this  in  no  other 
specimen. 


Vig.  14. — Dorsal  Vertebrae,  from  sixth  to  tenth  inclusive,  of  natural  size,  viewed  laterally. 
A.  Wild  Rabbit.     B.  Large,  Hare-culourtd,  so  called  Spanish  Rabbit. 

Lumbar  VertebrcE. — I  have  stated  that  in  two  cases  there  were 
eight  instead  of  seven  lumbar  vertebree.  The 
third  lumbar  vertebrae  in  one  skeleton  of  a 
wild  British  rabbit,  and  in  one  of  the  Porto 
Santo  feral  rabbits,  had  a  haemal  spine ; 
whilst  in  four  skeletons  of  large  lop-eared 
rabbits,  and  in  the  Himalayan  rabbit,  this 
same  vertebra  had  a  well  developed  haemal 
spine. 

Felvis. — In  four  wild  specimens  this  bone 
was  almost  absolutely  identical  in  shape ;  but 
in  several  domesticated  breeds  shades  of 
differences  could  be  distinguished.  In  the 
of  large  lop-eared  rabbits,  the  whole  upper  part 
sternum,  of  natural  size,  of  the  ilium  is  straighter,  or  less  splayed  out- 
t;^:::S^^S^J\^.  wards,  than  in  the  wild  rabbit;  and  the 
c.  Hare-coloured  Spanish  tuberosity  on  the  inner  lip  ot  the  n.nterior 
Rabbit.    (x.B.  The  left-   ^nd  upper  part  of  the  ilium  is  proportionally 

hand   angle  of  the   upper  •  . 

articular    extremity   of    B    niorc  prommeut. 

was  broken,  and  has  been       Sternum. — The  posterior  end  of  the  pos- 

a^cddemaiiy   thus   repre-   ^^^^^^  sternal  bone  in  the  wild  rabbit  (fig.  15, 

a)  is  thin  and  slightly  enlarged ;  in  some  of 

the  large  lop-eared  rabbits  (b)  it  is  much  more  enlarged  towards 


Fig.  15. — Terminal    b 


I  have  been  informed  by  the  garjie- 
keepei-,  from  variously-coloured  do- 
mestic rabbits  which  had  been  turned 
out.  They  vary  in  colour ;  but 
many    are    symmetrically    coloured, 


being  white  with  a  streak  along  the 
spine,  and  with  the  ears  and  certain 
marks  about  the  head  of  a  blackish- 
grey  tint.  They  have  rather  longer 
bodies  than  common  rabbits. 


Chap.  IV.         DIFFERENCES   IN   THEIK   SKELETONS. 


129 


tlie  extremity;  whilst  in  other  specimens  (c)  it  keeps  nearly  of 
the  same  breadth  from  end  to  end,  but  is  much  thicker  at  the 
extremity. 

Scapula. — The  acromion  sends  out  a  rectangular  bar,  ending  in  an 
oblique  knob,  which  latter  in  the  wild  rabbit  (tig.  16,  a)  varies  a  little 
in  shape  and  size,  as  does 
the  apex  of  the  acromion  in 
sharpness,  and  the  part  just 
below  the  rectangular  bar  in 
breadth.  But  the  variations 
in  these  respects  in  the  wild 
rabbit  are  very  slight :  whilst 
in  the  large  lop-eared  rabbits 
they  are  considerable.  Thus 
in  some  specimens  (b)  the 
oblique  terminal  knob  is  de- 
veloped into  a  short  bar, 
forming  an  obtuse  angle  with 
the  rectangular  bar.  In 
another  specimen  (c)  these 
two  unequal  bars  form  nearly 
a  straight  line.  The  apex  of 
the  acromion  varies  much  in 
breadth  and  sharpness,  as 
may  be  seen  by  comparing 
figs.  B,  c,  and  d. 

Limhs. — In  these  I  could 
detect  no  variation ;  but  the 
bones  of  the  feet  were  too  troublesome  to  compare  with  much  care. 

I  have  nov^  described  all  tlie  differences  in  the  skeletons 
which  I  have  observed.  It  is  impossible  not  to  be  struck  with 
the  high  degree  of  variability  or  plasticity  of  many  of  the 
bones.  We  see  how  erroneous  the  often-repeated  statement 
is,  that  only  the  crests  of  the  bones  which  give  attachment  to 
muscles  vary  in  shape,  and  that  only  parts  of  slight  import- 
ance become  modified  under  domestication.  No  one  will  say,  for 
instance,  that  the  occipital  foramen,  or  the  atlas,  or  the  third 
cervical  vertebra  is  a  part  of  slight  importance.  If  the  several 
vertebne  of  the  wild  and  lop-eared  rabbits,  of  which  figures 
have  been  given,  had  been  found  fossil,  palaeontologists  would 
have  declared  without  hesitation  that  they  had  belonged  to 
distinct  species. 

The  effects  of  the  use  and  dis"se  of  parts. — In  the  large  lop-eared 
rabbits  the  relative  proportional  length  of  the  bones  of  the  same  leg, 
and  of  the  front  and  hind  legs  compared  with  each  other,  have 

10 


c  D 

Fig.  16. — Acromion  of  ScajtuUi,  of  nntural  si/e. 

A.  Wild  Rabbit.  B,  C,  L>,  Large,   Lop-eared 
Kabbits. 


130  DOMESTIC    KABBITS  :  Dhap.  IV. 

reraainod  nearly  the  same  as  in  the  wild  rabbit ;  but  in  weight,  the 
bones  of  the  hind  legs  apparently  have  not  increased  in  due  pro- 
portion with  the  front  legs.  The  weight  of  the  whole  body  in  the 
large  rabbits  examined  by  me  was  from  twice  to  twice  and  a  half  as 
great  as  that  of  the  wild  rabbit ;  and  the  weight  of-the  bones  of  the 
front  and  hind  limbs  taken  together  (excluding  the  feet,  on  account 
of  the  difficulty  of  cleaning  so  many  small  bones)  has  increased  in 
the  large  lop-eared  rabbits  in  nearly  the  same  proportion;  con- 
sequently in  due  proportion  to  the  weight  of  body  which  they  have 
to  support.  If  we  take  the  length  of  the  body  as  the  standard  of 
comparison,  the  limbs  of  the  large  rabbits  have  not  increased  in 
length  in  due  proportion  by  one  inch  and  a  half.  Again,  if  we  take 
as  the  standard  of  comparison  the  length  of  the  skull,  which,  as  we 
have  before  seen,  has  not  increased  in  length  in  due  proportion  to 
the  length  of  body,  the  limbs  will  be  found  to  be,  proportionally 
with  those  of  the  wild  rabbit,  from  half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
too  short.  Hence,  whatever  standard  of  comparison  be  taken,  the 
limb-bones  of  the  large  lop-eared  rabbits  have  not  increased  in 
length,  though  they  have  in  weight,  in  full  proportion  to  the  other 
parts  of  the  frame ;  and  this,  I  presume,  may  be  accounted  for  by 
the  inactive  life  which  during  many  generations  they  have  spent. 
Nor  has  the  scapula  increased  in  length  in  due  proportion  to  the 
increased  length  of  the  body. 

The  capacity  of  the  osseous  case  of  the  brain  is  a  more  interesting 
point,  to  which  I  was  led  to  attend  by  finding,  as  previously  stated, 
that  with  all  domesticated  rabbits  the  length  of  the  skull  relatively 
to  its  breadth  has  greatly  increased  in  comparison  with  that  of  the 
wild  rabbits.  If  we  had  possessed  a  large  number  of  domesticated 
rabbits  of  nearly  the  same  size  with  the  wild  rabbits,  it  would  have 
been  a  simple  task  to  have  measured  and  compared  the  capacities 
of  their  skulls.  But  this  is  not  the  case :  almost  all  the  domestic 
breeds  have  larger  bodies  than  wild  rabbits,  and  the  lop-eared  kinds 
are  more  than  doable  their  weight.  As  a  small  animal  has  to  exert 
its  senses,  intellect,  and  instincts  equally  with  a  large  animal,  we 
ought  not  by  any  means  to  expect  an  animal  twice  or  thrice  as  large 
as  another  to  have  a  brain  of  double  or  treble  the  size.  ^^  Now, 
after  weighing  the  bodies  of  four  wild  rabbits,  and  of  four  large  but 
not  fattened  lop-eared  rabbits,  I  find  that  on  an  average  the  wild 
are  to  the  lop-eared  in  Treight  as  1  to  2-17 ;  in  average  length  of 
body  as  1  to  I"4:l;  whilst  in  capacity  of  skull  they  are  as  1  to  1"15. 
Hence  we  see  that  the  capacity  of  the  skull,  and  consequently  the 
size  of  the  brain,  has  increased  but  little,  relatively  to  the  increased 
size  of  the  body ;  and  this  fact  explains  the  narrowness  of  the  skull 
relatively  to  its  length  in  all  domestic  rabbits. 


^''  See  Prof.  Owen's  remarks  on  this  1862  :    with    respect    to    Birds,    SM 

subject  in  his  paper  on  the  'Zoological  '  Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,'  Jan.   11th,  184-8b 

Significance  of  the  Brain,  &c.,of  Man,  p.  8. 
Sic.,*    read    before    Brit,    Association 


Chap.  IV  EFFECTS   OF    USE   AND   DISUSE.  131 

In  the  upper  half  of  the  following  table  I  have  given  the  measTire- 
ments  of  the  skull  of  ten  wild  rabbits ;  and  in  the  lower  half,  of 
eleven  thoroughly  domesticated  kinds.  As  these  rabbits  differ  so 
greatly  in  size,  it  is  necessary  to  have  some  standard  by  which  to 
compare  the  capacities  of  their  skulls.  I  have  selected  the  length 
of  skull  as  the  best  standard,  for  in  the  larger  rabbits  it  has  not,  as 
already  stated,  increased  in  length  so  much  as  the  body  ;  but  as  the 
skull,  like  every  other  part,  varies  in  length,  neither  it  nor  any  other 
part  affords  a  perfect  standard. 

In  the  first  column  of  figures  the  extreme  length  of  the  skull  is 
given  in  inches  and  decimals.  I  am  aware  that  these  measurements 
pretend  to  greater  accuracy  than  is  possible ;  but  I  have  found  it 
the  least  trouble  to  record  the  exact  length  which,  the  compass  gave. 
The  second  and  third  columns  give  the  length  and  weight  of  body, 
whenever  these  observations  were  made.  The  fourth  column 
gives  the  capacity  of  the  skull  by  the  weight  of  small  shot  with 
which  the  skulls  were  filled  ;  but  it  is  not  pretended  that  these 
weights  are  accurate  within  a  few  grains.  In  the  fifth  column  the 
capacity  is  given  which  the  skull  ought  to  have  had  by  calculation, 
according  to  the  length  of  skull,  in  comparison  with  that  of  the  wild 
rabbit  No.  1 ;  in  the  sixth  column  the  difference  between  the  actual 
and  calculated  capacities,  and  in  the  seventh  the  percentage  of 
increase  or  decrease,  are  given.  Tor  instance,  as  the  wild  rabbit 
No.  5  has  a  shorter  and  lighter  body  than  the  wild  rabbit  No.  1,  we, 
might  have  expected  that  its  skull  would  have  had  less  capacity; 
the  actual  capacity,  as  expressed  by  the  weight  of  shot,  is  875  grains, 
which  is  97  grains  less  than  that  of  the  first  rabbit.  But  comparing 
these  two  rabbits  by  the  length  of  their  skulls,  we  see  that  in  No.  1 
the  skull  is  315  inches  in  length,  and  in  No.  5  296  inches  in  length ; 
according  to  this  ratio,  the  brain  of  No.  5  ought  to  have  had  a 
capacity  of  913  grains  of  shot,  which  is  above  the  actual  capacity, 
but  only  by  38  grains.  Or,  to  put  the  case  in  another  way  (as  in 
column  vii),  the  brain  of  this  small  rabbit.  No.  5,  for  every  100  grains 
of  weight  is  only  4  grains  too  light, — that  is,  it  ought,  according 
to  the  standard  rabbit  No.  1,  to  have  been  4  per  cent,  heavier.  I 
have  taken  the  rabbit  No.  1  as  the  standard  of  comparison  because, 
of  the  skulls  having  a  full  average  length,  this  has  the  least  capacity ; 
so  that  it  is  the  least  favourable  to  the  result  which  I  wish  to  show, 
namely,  that  the  brain  in  all  long-domesticated  rabbits  has  decreased 
in  size,  either  actually,  or  relatively  to  the  length  of  the  head  and 
body,  in  comparison  with  the  brain  of  the  wild  rabbit.  Had  I  taken 
the  Irish  rabbit,  No.  3,  as  the  standard,  the  following  results  wotdd 
have  been  somewhat  more  striking. 

TurLing  to  the  table  :  the  first  four  wild  rabbits  have  skulls  of  the 
same  length,  and  these  differ  but  little  in  capacity.  The  Sandon 
rabbit  (No.  4)  is  interesting,  as,  though  now  wild,  it  is  known  to  be 
descended  from  a  domesticated  breed,  as  is  still  shown  by  its  pecu- 
liar colouring  and  longer  body ;  nevertheless  the  skull  has  recovered 
ils  normal  length  and  full  capacity.     The  next  three  rabbits  are  wild, 


132  DOMESTIC   RABBITS:  Chap.  IV. 

but  of  small  size,  and  they  all  have  skulls  with  slightly  lessened 
capacities.  The  three  Porto  Santo  feral  rabbits  (Nos.  8  to  10)  offer 
a  perplexing  case ;  their  bodies  are  greatly  reduced  in  size,  as  in  a 
lesser  degree  are  their  skulls  in  length  and  in  actual  capacity,  in 
comparison  with  the  skulls  of  wild  English  rabbits.  But  when  we 
compare  the  capacities  of  the  skull  in  the  three  Porto  Santo  rabbits, 
we  observe  a  surprising  difference,  which  does  not  stand  in  any 
relation  to  the  slight  difference  in  the  length  of  their  skulls,  nor, 
as  I  believe,  to  any  difference  in  the  size  of  their  bodies ;  but  I 
neglected  weighing  separately  their  bodies.  I  can  hardly  suppose 
that  the  medullary  matter  of  the  brain  in  these  three  rabbits,  living 
under  similar  conditions,  can  differ  as  much  as  is  indicated  by  the 
proportional  difference  of  capacity  in  their  skulls ;  nor  do  I  know 
whether  it  is  possible  that  one  brain  may  contain  considerably  more 
fluid  than  another.     Hence  I  can  throw  no  light  on  this  case. 

Looking  to  the  lower  half  of  the  Table,  which  gives  the  measure- 
ments of  domesticated  rabbits,  we  see  that  in  all  the  capacity  of  the 
skull  is  less,  but  in  very  various  degrees,  than  might  have  been 
anticipated  according  to  the  length  of  their  skulls,  relatively  to  that 
of  the  wild  rabbit  No.  1.  In  line  22  the  average  measurements  of 
seven  large  lop-eared  rabbits  are  given.  Now  the  question  arises, 
has  the  average  capacity  of  the  skull  in  these  seven  large  rabbits 
increased  as  much  as  might  have  been  expected  from  their  greatly 
increased  size  of  body.  We  may  endeavour  to  answer  this  question 
in  two  ways :  in  the  upper  half  of  the  Table  we  have  measurements 
of  the  skulls  of  six  small  wild  rabbits  (Nos.  5  to  10),  and  we  find 
that  on  an  average  the  skulls  are  '18  of  an  inch  shorter,  and  in 
capacity  91  grains  less,  than  the  average  length  and  capacity  of 
the  three  first  wild  rabbits  on  the  list.  The  seven  large  lop-eared 
rabbits,  on  an  average,  have  skulls  4-11  inches  in  length,  and  1136 
grains  in  capacity ;  so  that  these  skulls  have  increased  in  length 
more  than  five  times  as  much  as  the  skulls  of  the  six  small  wild 
rabbits  have  decreased  in  length ;  hence  we  might  have  expected 
that  the  skulls  of  the  large  lop-eared  rabbits  would  have  increased 
in  capacity  five  times  as  much  as  the  skulls  of  the  six  small  rabbits 
have  decreased  in  capacity;  and  this  would  have  given  an  average 
increased  capacity  of  455  grains,  whilst  the  real  average  increase  is 
only  155  grains.  Again,  the  large  lop-eared  rabbits  have  bodies  of 
nearly  the  same  weight  and  size  as  the  common  hare,  but  their 
heads  are  longer ;  consequently,  if  the  lop-eared  rabbits  had  been 
wild,  it  might  have  been  expected  that  their  skulls  would  have  had 
nearly  the  same  capacity  as  that  of  the  skull  of  the  hare.  But  this 
is  far  from  being  the  case ;  for  the  average  capacity  of  the  two  hare- 
ekuUs  (Nos.  23,  24)  is  so  much  larger  than  the  average  capacity  of 
the  seven  lop-eared  skulls,  that  the  latter  would  have  to  be  increased 
21  per  cent,  to  come  up  to  the  standard  of  the  hare.-^ 


'■^^  This  standard  is  apparently  con-       Zoolog.  Soc.,'  1861,  p.  86)  gives  210 
Bidorably  tcx)  low,  for  Dr.  Crisp  ('Proc.        grains  as   the  actual   weight   of  the 


ClIAK  IV. 


EFFECTS    OF    USE    AND    DISUSE. 


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<5 

134  DOMESTIC   RABBITS  :  Chap.  IV. 

I  have  previously  remarked  that,  if  we  had  possessed  many 
domestic  rabbits  of  the  same  average  size  with  the  wild  rabbit,  it 
would  have  been  easy  to  compare  the  capacity  of  their  skulls.  Now 
the  Himalayan,  ]\Ioscow,  and  Angora  rabbits  (Nos.  11,  12,  13  of 
Table)  are  only  a  little  larger  in  body  and  have  skulls  only  a  little 
longer,  than  the  wild  animal,  and  we  see  that  the  actual  capacity  of 
their  skulls  is  less  than  in  the  wild  animal,  and  considerably  less  by 
calculation  (column  7),  according  to  the  difference  in  the  length  of 
thtir  skulls.  The  narrowness  of  the  brain-case  in  these  three  rabbits 
could  be  plainly  seen  and  proved  by  external  measurement.  The 
Chinchilla  rabbit  (No.  14)  is  a  considerably  larger  animal  than  the 
wild  rabbit,  yet  the  capacity  of  its  skull  only  slightly  exceeds  that  of 
the  wild  rabbit.  The  Angora  rabbit,  No.  13,  offers  the  most  remark- 
able case ;  this  animal  ia  its  pure  white  colour  and  length  of  silky 
fur  bears  the  stamp  of  long  domesticity.  It  has  a  considerably 
longer  head  and  body  than  the  wild  rabbit,  but  the  actual  capacity 
of  its  skull  is  less  than  that  of  even  the  little  wild  Porto  Santo 
rabbits.  By  the  standard  of  the  length  of  skull  the  capacity  (see 
column  7)  is  only  half  of  what  it  ought  to  have  been !  I  kept  this 
individual  animal  alive,  and  it  was  not  unhealthy  nor  idiotic.  This 
case  of  the  Angora  rabbit  so  much  surprised  me,  that  I  repeated  all 
the  measurements  and  found  them  correct.  I  have  also  compared 
the  capacity  of  the  skull  of  the  Angora  with  that  of  the  wild  rabbit 
by  other  standards,  namely,  by  the  length  and  weight  of  the  body, 
and  by  the  weight  of  the  limb-bones ;  but  by  all  these  standards 
the  brain  appears  to  be  much  too  small,  though  in  a  less  degree  when 
the  standard  of  the  limb-bones  was  used  ;  and  this  latter  circum- 
stance may  probably  be  accounted  for  by  the  limbs  of  this  anciently 
domesticated  breed  having  become  much  reduced  in  weight,  from  its 
long-continued  inactive  life.  Hence  I  infer  that  in  the  Angora 
breed,  which  is  said  to  differ  from  other  breeds  in  being  quieter  and 
more  social  the  capacity  of  the  skull  has  really  undergone  a  remark- 
able amount  of  reduction. 

From  the  several  facts  above  given, — namely,  firstly,  thai 
the  actual  capacity  of  the  skull  in  the  Himalayan,  Moscow, 
and  Angora  breeds,  is  less  than  in  the  wild  rabbit,  though 
they  are  in  all  their  dimensions  rather  larger  animals ; 
eecondly,  that  the  capacity  of  the  skull  of  the  large  lop-eared 
rabbits  has  not  been  increased  in  nearly  the  same  ratio  as  the 
capacity  of  the   skull  of  the  smaller  wild  rabbits  has  been 

brain  of  a  hare  which  weighed  7  lbs.,  in    ."^hot    is  in  my   table  972   grains; 

and  125  grains  as  the  weight  of  the  and  according  to  Dr.  Crisp's  ratio  of 

brain  of  a  rabbit  which  weighed  3  lbs.  125    to    210,  the  skull  of  the    hare 

5  oz.,  that  is,  the  same  weight  as  the  ought  to  have  contained  1632  grains 

rabbit  No.    1   in  my   list.     Now    the  of  shot,  instead  of  only  (in  the  largest 

concents  of  the  siiull  of  rabbit  No.  1  hiire  iu  my  table)  1155  grains. 


CHAr.  IV.  EFFECTS   OF    USE   AND   DISUSE.  185 

decreased  ;  and  thirdly,  that  the  capacity  of  the  skull  in  these 
same  large  lop-eared  rabbits  is  very  inferior  to  that  of  the 
hare,  an  animal  of  nearly  the  same  size, — ^I  conclude,  not- 
withstanding the  remarkable  differences  in  capacity  in  the 
skulls  of  the  small  Porto  Santo  rabbits,  and  likewise  in  the 
large  lop-eared  kinds,  that  in  all  long-domesticated  rabbits  the 
brain  has  either  by  no  means  increased  in  due  proportion 
with  the  increased  length  of  the  head  and  increased  size  of  the 
body,  or  that  it  has  actually  decreased  in  size,  relatively  to  what 
would  have  occurred  had  these  animals  lived  in  a  state  of 
nature.  When  we  remember  that  rabbits,  from  having  been 
domesticated  and  closely  confined  during  many  generations, 
cannot  have  exerted  their  intellect,  instincts,  senses,  and 
voluntary  movements,  either  in  escaj)ing  from  various 
dangers  or  in  searching  for  food,  we  may  conclude  that  their 
brains  will  have  been  feebly  exercised,  and  consequently 
have  suffered  in  development.  We  thus  see  that  the  most 
important  and  complicated  organ  in  the  whole  organisation 
is  subject  to  the  law  of  decrease  in  size  from  disuse. 

Finally,  let  us  sum  up  the  more  important  modifications 
which  domestic  rabbits  have  undergone,  together  with  their 
causes  as  far  as  we  can  obscurely  see  them.  By  the  supply  of 
abundant  and  nutritious  food,  together  with  little  exercise,  and 
by  the  continued  selection  of  the  heaviest  individuals,  the 
weight  of  the  larger  breeds  has  been  more  than  doubled. 
The  bones  of  the  limbs  taken  together  have  increased  in 
weight,  in  due  proportion  with  the  increased  weight  of  body, 
but  the  hind  legs  have  increased  less  than  the  front  legs ; 
but  in  length  they  have  not  increased  in  due  proportion,  and 
this  may  have  been  caused  by  the  want  of  proper  exercise. 
With  the  increased  size  of  the  body  the  third  cervical  has  as- 
sumed characters  proper  to  the  fourth  cervical  vertebra;  and  the 
eighth  and  ninth  dorsal  vertebrae  have  similarly  assumed  cha- 
racters proper  to  the  tenth  and  posterior  vertebree.  The  skull 
in  the  larger  breeds  has  increased  in  length,  but  not  in  due  pro- 
portion with  the  increased  length  of  body  ;  the  brain  has  not 
duly  increased  in  dimensions,  or  hos  even  actually  decreased, 
and  consequently  the  bony  case  for  the  brain  has  remained 
uaTrow,  and  by  correlation  has  affected  the  bones  of  the  face 


136  DOMESTIC   EABBITS.  Chap.  I\, 

and  tlie  entire  length  of  the  skull.  The  skull  has  thus 
acquired  its  characteristic  narrowness.  From  unknown  causes 
the  supra-orbital  process  of  the  frontal  bones  and  the  free 
end  of  the  malar  bones  have  increased  in  breadth ;  and  in 
the  larger  breeds  the  occipital  foramen  is  generally  much 
less  deeply  notched  than  in  wild  rabbits.  Certain  parts  of 
the  scapula  and  the  terminal  sternal  bones  have  become 
highly  variable  in  shape.  The  ears  have  been  increased 
enormously  in  length  and  breadth  through  continued  selec- 
tion ;  their  weight,  conjoined  probably  with  the  disuse  of 
their  muscles,  has  caused  them  to  lop  downwards ;  and  this 
has  affected  the  position  and  form  of  the  bony  auditory 
meatus;  and  this  again,  by  correlation,  the  position  in  a 
>>!light  degree  of  almost  every  bone  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
skull,  and  even  the  position  of  the  condyles  of  the  lower 
jaw. 


Chap.  V.  PIGEONS:    DESCRIPTION    OF   BREEDS.  13 7 


CHAPTER  V. 

DOMESTIC   PIGEONS. 

ENUMERATION  AND  DESCRIPTION  OP  THE  SEVERAL  BREEDS — INDIVIDUAL 
VARIABILITY — ^VARIATIONS  OF  A  REMARKABLE  NATURE — OSTEOLOGICAL 
characters:   skull,   lower  jaw,   number   of   VERTEBRA — CORRELATION 

OP    growth:    tongue    with    beak;     eyelids    and    nostrils    with 

WATTLED    SKIN — NUMBER   OF    WING-FEATHERS,    AND    LENGTH    OF  WING — 

COLOUR  AND   DOWN — WEBBED    AND    FEATHERED    FEET ON   THE   EFFECTS 

OF  DISUSE — LENGTH  OF  FEET  IN  CORRELATION  WITH  LENGTH  OF  BEAK 
— LENGTH  OF  STERNUM,  SCAPULA,  AND  PURCULUM — LENGTH  OF  WINGS — 
SUMMARY   ON   THE   POINTS   OF   DIFFERENCE   IN   THE   SEVERAL   BREEDS. 

I  HAVE  been  led  to  study  domestic  pigeons  witli  particular 
care,  because  the  evidence  that  all  the  domestic  races  are 
descended  from  one  known  source  is  far  clearer  than  with  any 
other  anciently  domesticated  animal.  Secondly,  because  many 
treatises  in  several  languages,  some  of  them  old,  have  been 
written  on  the  pigeon,  so  that  we  are  enabled  to  trace  the 
history  of  several  breeds.  And  lastly,  because,  from  causes 
which  we  can  partly  understand,  the  amount  of  variation 
has  been  extraordinarily  great.  The  details  will  often  be 
tediously  minute  ;  but  no  one  who  really  wants  to  understand 
the  progress  of  change  in  domestic  animals,  and  especially 
no  one  who  has  kept  pigeons  and  has  marked  the  great 
difference  between  the  breeds  and  the  trueness  with  which 
most  of  them  propagate  their  kind,  will  doubt  that  this 
minuteness  is  worth  while.  Notwithstanding  the  clear  evi- 
dence that  all  the  breeds  are  the  descendants  of  a  single 
Bpecies,  I  could  not  persuade  myself  until  some  years  had 
passed  that  the  whole  amount  of  difference  between  them,  had 
arisen  since  man  first  domesticated  the  Avild  rock-pigeon. 

I  have  kept  alive  all  the  most  distinct  breeds,  which  I  could 
procure  in  England  or  from  the  Continent ;  and  have  pre- 
pared skeletons  of  all.  I  have  received  skins  from  Persia, 
and  a  large  number  from  India  and  other  quarters  of  the 


138 


DOMESTIC   PIGEONS  : 


Chat.  V. 


world. ^  Since  my  admission  into  two  of  the  London  pigeon- 
clubs,  I  have  received  the  kindest  assistance  from  many  of  the 
most  eminent  amateurs.^ 

The  races  of  the  Pigeon  which  can  be  distinguished,  and 
which  breed  true,  are  very  numerous.  MM.  Boitard  and 
Corbie ^ describe  in  detail  122  kinds;  and  I  could  add  several 
European  kinds  not  known  to  them.  In  India,  judging  from 
the  skins  sent  me,  there  are  many  breeds  unknown  here  ;  and 
Sir  W.  Elliot  informs  me  that  a  collection  imported  by  an 
Indian  merchant  into  Madras  from  Cairo  and  Constantinople 
included  several  kinds  unknown  in  India.  I  have  no  doubt 
that  there  exist  considerably  above  150  kinds  which  breed 
true  and  have  been  separately  named.  But  of  these  the  far 
greater  number  differ  from  each  other  only  in  unimportant 
characters.  Such  differences  will  be  here  entirely  passed 
over,  and  I  shall  confine  myself  to  the  more  important  points 
of  structure.  That  many  important  differences  exist  we 
shall  presently  see.     I  have  looked  through  the  magnificent 


*  The  Hon.  C.  Murray  has  sent  me 
some  very  valuable  specimens  from 
Persia ;  and  H.M.  Consul,  Mr.  Keith 
Abbott,  has  given  me  information  on 
the  pigeons  of  the  same  country.  I 
am  deeply  indebted  to  Sir  Walter 
Elliot  for  an  immense  collection  of 
skins  from  Madras,  with  much  infor- 
mation regarding  them.  Mr.  Blyth 
has  freely  communicated  to  me  his 
stores  of  knowledge  on  this  and  all 
other  related  subjects.  The  Rajah 
Sir  James  Brooke  sent  me  specimens 
from  Borneo,  as  has  H.M.  Consul, 
Mr.  Swinhoe,  from  Amoy  in  China, 
and  Dr.  Daniell  Irom  the  west  coast 
of  Africa. 

2  Mr.  B.  P.  Brent,  well  known  for 
his  various  contributions  to  poultry 
literature,  has  aided  me  in  every  way 
di.ring  several  years :  so  has  Mr. 
Tegetmeier,  with  unwearied  kindness. 
This  latter  gentleman,  who  is  well 
known  for  his  works  on  poultry,  and 
who  has  largely  bred  pigeons,  has 
looked  over  this  and  the  following 
chapters.  Mr.  Bult  formerly  showed 
me  his  unrivalled  collection  of  Pouters, 


and  gave  me  specimens.  I  had  access 
to  Mr.  Wicking's  collection,  which 
contained  a  greater  assortment  of 
kinds  than  could  anywhere  else  be 
seen  ;  and  he  has  always  aided  me 
with  specimens  and  information  given 
in  the  freest  manner.  Mr.  Haynes 
and  Mr.  Corker  have  given  me  speci- 
mens of  their  magnificent  Carriers. 
To  Mr.  Harrison  Weir  I  am  likewise 
indebted.  Nor  must  I  by  any  means 
pass  over  the  assistance  received  from 
Mr.  J.  M.  Eaton,  Mr,  Baker,  Mr.  Evans, 
and  Mr.  J.  Baily,  jun.,  of  Mount- 
street —  to  the  latter  gentleman  I 
have  been  indebted  for  some  valuable 
specimens.  To  all  these  gentleman 
I  beg  permission  to  return  my  sincere 
and  cordial  thanks. 

'  '  Les  Pigeons  de  Voliere  et  de 
Colombier,'  Paris,  1824.  During  forty- 
five  years  the  sole  occupation  of  M. 
Corbie  was  the  care  of  the  pigeons 
belonging  to  the  Duchess  of  Berry. 
Bonizzi  has  described  a  large  number 
of  coloured  varieties  in  Italy:  'Lc 
variazioni  dei  colombi  Domestjfi 
Padova,  1873. 


Chap.  Y.  DESCRIPTION   OF   BREEDS.  139 

collection  of  the  Columbidee  in  the  British  Mnsenm,  and, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  forms  (such  as  the  Didun cuius, 
Calaenas,  Goura,  &c.),  I  do  not  hesitate  to  affirm  that  some 
domestic  races  of  the  rock-pigeon  differ  fully  as  much  from 
each  other  in  external  characters  as  do  the  most  distinct 
natural  genera.  We  may  look  in  vain  through  the  288 
known  species  *  for  a  beak  so  small  and  conical  as  that  of  the 
short-faced  tumbler ;  for  one  so  broad  and  short  as  that  of 
the  barb ;  for  one  so  long,  straight,  and  narrow,  with  its 
enormous  wattles,  as  that  of  the  English  carrier ;  for  an  ex- 
panded upraised  tail  like  that  of  the  fantail ;  or  for  an  oeso- 
phagus like  that  of  the  pouter.  I  do  not  for  a  moment  pretend 
that  the  domestic  races  differ  from  each  other  in  their  whole 
organisation  as  much  as  the  more  distinct  natural  genera.  1 
refer  only  to  external  characters,  on  which,  however,  it  must 
be  confessed  that  most  genera  of  birds  have  been  founded. 
When,  in  a  future  chapter,  we  discuss  the  principle  of  selection 
as  followed  by  man,  we  shall  clearly  see  why  the  differences 
between  the  domestic  races  are  almost  always  confined  to 
external,  or  at  least  to  externally  visible,  characters. 

Owing  to  the  amount  and  gradations  of  difference  between 
the  several  breeds,  I  have  found  it  indispensable  in  the  follow- 
ing classification  to  rank  them  under  Groups,  Eaces,  and  Sub- 
races  ;  to  which  varieties  and  sub  -  varieties,  all  strictly 
inheriting  their  proper  characters,  must  often  be  added. 
Even  with  the  individuals  of  the  same  sub-variety,  when 
long  kept  by  different  fanciers,  different  strains  can  sometimes 
be  recognised.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that,  if  well-charac- 
terized forms  of  the  several  races  had  been  found  wild,  all 
would  have  been  ranked  as  distinct  species,  and  several  of 
them  would  certainly  have  been  placed  by  ornithologists  in 
distinct  genera.  A  good  classification  of  the  various  domestic 
breeds  is  extremely  difficult,  owing  to  the  manner  in  which 
many  of  the  forms  graduate  into  each  other ;  but  it  is  curious 
how  exactly  the  same  difficulties  are  encountered,  and  tlie 
same  rules  have  to  be  followed,  as  in  the  classification  of  any 
natural  but  difficult  group  of  organic  beings.     An  "  artificial 

*  '  Coup    d'Oeil    sur     I'Ordre    des       Paris,  1 855.     This  author  makes  288 
Pigeons,'  par  Prince  C.  L.  Bonaparte,        species,  ranked  under  85  tjenera. 


J  40  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS  :  Chap.  V 

classification  "  might  be  followed  whicli  would  present  fewer 
difficulties  than  a  "  natural  classification  ;"  but  then  it  would 
interrupt  many  plain  affinities.  Extreme  forms  can  readily 
be  defined ;  but  intermediate  and  troublesome  forms  often 
destroy  our  definitions.  Forms  which  may  be  called  "  aber- 
rant "  must  sometimes  be  included  within  groups  to  which 
they  do  not  accurately  belong.  Characters  of  all  kinds  must 
be  used  ;  but  as  with  birds  in  a  state  of  nature,  those  afforded 
by  the  beak  are  the  best  and  most  readily  appreciated.  It 
is  not  possible  to  weigh  the  importance  of  all  the  characters 
which  have  to  be  used  so  as  to  make  the  groups  and  sub-groups 
of  equal  value.  Lastly,  a  group  may  contain  only  one  race,  and 
another  and  less  distinctly  defined  group  may  contain  several 
races  and  sub-races,  and  in  this  case  it  is  difficult,  as  in  the 
classifi.cation  of  natural  species,  to  avoid  placing  too  high  a 
value  on  the  number  of  forms  which  a  group  may  contain. 

In  my  measurements  I  have  never  trusted  to  the  eye ;  and 
when  speaking  of  a  part  being  large  or  small,  I  always  refer 
to  the  wild  rock-pigeon  {Columba  livia)  as  the  standard  of 
comparison.  The  measurements  are  given  in  decimals  of  an 
inch.^ 

I  will  now  give  a  brief  description  of  all  the  principal 
breeds.  The  diagram  on  the  following  page  may  aid  the 
reader  in  learning  their  names  and  seeing  their  affinities. 
The  rock-pigeon,  or  Columha  livia  (including  under  this  name 

®  As  I  so  often  refer  to  the  size  of  tween  the  measurements  of  two  wild 
the  C.  livia,  or  rock-pigeon,  it  may  birds,  kindly  sent  me  by  Dr.  Edmond- 
be  convenient  to  give   the  mean  be-       stone  from  the  Shetland  Islands. 

Inches. 

Length  from  feathered  base  of  beak  to  end  of  tail ..       ..  14*25 

»           „                  „             „            to  oil-gland      9-5 

„        from  tip  of  beak  to  end  of  tail 15-02 

„        of  tail-feathers       4-62 

„        from  tip  to  tip  of  wmg          ..  26-75 

„        of  folded  wing        9*25 

Beak. —  Length  from  tip  of  beak  to  feathered  base '77 

„        Thickness,  measured  vertically  at  distal  end  of  nostrils     ..       ..  "23 

„        Breadth,  measured  at  same  place         '16 

Feet  —  Length  from  end  of  middle  toe  (without  claw)  to  distal  end  ol')  2.77 

tibia / 

„        Length  from   end   of  middle  toe   to  end  of  hind  toe   (without^  ^.^^ 

claws) I  " 

^'eight  14j  ounces. 


Chap.  V.  DESCRIPTION   OF   BREEDS.  141 

two  or  three  closely-allied  sub-species  or  gecgraphical  races. 


'-  .wpti.s  oa. 


rig.  17.— The  Rock  Pigeon,  or  Columbalivfa.a  The  parent-form  of  all  domesticated  Pigeons. 

®  This  drawing  was  made  from  a  by  Mr.  Tegetmeier.  It  may  be  con- 
dead  bird.  The  six  following  figures  fidently  asserted  that  the  characters 
were  drawn  with  great  care  by  Mr.  of  the  six  breeds  which  have  been 
Luke  Wells  from  living  bii'ds  selected  figured  are  not  in  the  least  exaggerated. 


142 


DOMESTIC    PIGEONS  : 


p-' 



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p./ 

^  \ 

— ^ 

o  \ 

« 

o 

I  o  

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TC 

«^ 

£     § 

e 

Chap.  V 

Dove  cot  ])igeon. 

Swallow. 

S]>ot. 

Eu(jlish  Frill-hack 

Laugher. 

Trumpeter. 


Ph  /  t- 

O 

o 


o  g 


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C    3 

OH 


V»rf 


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o 
o 

t-i 


pq     c2 


PL  O 


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Chap.  V.  DESCEIPTION   OF   BREEDS.  143 

hereafter  to  be  described),  may  be  confidently  viewed,  as  we 
shall  see  in  the  next  chapter,  as  the  common  parent-form. 
The  names  in  italics  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  page  show 
us  the  most  distinct  breeds,  or  those  which  have  undergone 
the  greatest  amount  of  modification.  The  lengths  of  the 
dotted  lines  rudely  rej)resent  the  degree  of  distinctness  of 
each  breed  from  the  parent -stock,  and  the  names  placed 
under  each  other  in  the  columns  show  the  more  or  less 
closely  connecting  links.  The  distances  of  the  dotted  lines 
from  each  other  approximately  represent  the  amount  of 
difference  between  the  several  breeds. 

Group  I. 

This  group  includes  a  single  race,  that  of  the  Pouters.  If 
the  most  strongly  marked  sub-race  be  taken,  namely,  the 
Improved  English  Pouter,  this  is  perhaps  the  most  distinct 
of  all  domesticated  pigeons. 

Race  I. — Pouter  Pigeons.     (Kropftauben,  German.     Grosses- 
gorges,  or  boulans,  French.) 

QJJsophagus  of  great  size,  barely  separated  from  the  crop,  often 
inflated,  Body  and  legs  elongated.  Beak  of  moderate  dimen- 
sions. 

Sub-race  1. — The  improved  English  Pouter,  when  its  crop  is  fully 
inflated,  presents  a  truly  astonishing  appearance.  The  habit  of 
slightly  inflating  the  crop  is  common  to  all  domestic  pigeons,  but 
is  carried  to  an  extreme  in  the  Pouter.  The  crop  does  not  differ, 
except  in  size,  from  that  of  other  pigeons ;  but  is  less  plainly 
separated  by  an  oblique  constriction  from  the  oesophagus.  The 
diameter  of  the  upper  part  of  the  oesophagus  is  immense,  even  close 
up  to  the  head.  The  beak  in  one  bird  which  I  possessed  was 
almost  completely  buried  when  the  oesophagus  was  fully  expanded. 
The  males,  especially  when  excited,  pout  more  than  the  females, 
and  they  glory  in  exercising  this  power.  If  a  bird  will  not,  to  use 
the  technical  expression,  "  play,"  the  fancier,  as  I  have  witnessed, 
by  taking  the  beak  into  his  mouth,  blows  him  up  like  a  balloon ; 
and  the  bird,  then  puffed  up  with  wind  and  pride,  struts  about, 
retaining  his  magnificent  size  as  long  as  he  can.  Pouters  often 
take  flight  with  their  crops  inflated.  After  one  of  my  birds  had 
swallowed  a  good  meal  of  peas  and  water,  as  he  flew  up  in  order  to 
disgorge  them  and  feed  his  nearly  fledged  young,  I  heard  the  peas 
rattling  in  his  inflated  crop  as  if  in  a  bladder.     When  flying,  they 


144 


DOMESTIC  pigeons: 


Chap.  V 


often  strike  the  backs  of  their  wings  together,  and  thus  make  a 
clapping  noise. 

Pouters  stand  remarkably  upright,  and  their  bodies  are  thin  and 
elongated.     In   connexion  with  this  form  of  body,  the  ribs  are 


Fig.  18."-Engli8h  Pouier. 

generally  broader  and  the  yertebrss  more  numerous  than  in  other 
breeds.  From  their  manner  of  standing  their  legs  appear  longer 
than  they  really  are,  though,  in  proportion  with  those  of  C.  Uvia, 
the  legs  and  feet  are  actually  longer.  The  wings  appear  much 
elongated,  but  by  measurement,  in  relation  to  the  length  of  body, 


OQAI^V.  DESCRIPTION   OF   BREEDS.  145 

this  is  not  the  case.  The  beak  likewise  appears  longer,  but  it  is 
in  fact  a  little  shorter  (about  '03  of  an  inch),  proportionally  with. 
the  size  of  the  body,  and  relatively  to  the  beak  of  the  rock-pigeon. 
The  Pouter,  though  not  bulky,  is  a  large  bird;  I  measured  cne 
which  was  34:h  inches  from  tip  to  tip  of  wing,  and  19  inches  from 
tip  of  beak  to  end  of  tail.  In  a  wild  rock-pigeon  from  the  ShetJand 
Islands  the  same  measurements  gave  only  28.i  and  141.  There  are 
many  sub-varieties  of  the  Pouter  of  different  colours,  but  these  I 
pass  over. 

Sub-race  II.  Dutch  Pouter. — This  seems  to  be  the  parent-form  of 
our  improved  English  Pouters.  I  kept  a  pair,  but  I  suspect  that 
they  were  not  pure  birds.  They  are  smaller  than  English  pouters, 
and  less  well  developed  in  all  their  characters.  Neumeister^  says 
that  the  wings  are  crossed  over  the  tail,  and  do  not  reach  to  its 
extremity. 

Sub-race  III.  The  Lille  Pouter. — I  know  this  breed  only  from 
descrif)tion.^  It  approaches  in  general  form  the  Dutch  Pouter,  but 
the  inflated  oesophagus  assumes  a  spherical  form,  as  if  the  pigeon 
had  swallowed  a  large  orange,  which  had  stuck  close  under  the 
beak.  This  inflated  ball  is  represented  as  rising  to  a  level  with  the 
crown  of  the  head.  The  middle  toe  alone  is  feathered.  A  variety 
of  this  sub-race,  called  the  claquant,  is  described  by  MM.  Boitard 
and  Corbie ;  it  pouts  but  little,  and  is  characterised  by  the  habit 
of  violently  hitting  its  wings  together  over  its  back, — a  habit  which 
the  English  Pouter  has  in  a  slight  degree. 

Sub-race  IV.  Common  German  Pouter.- — I  know  this  bird  only 
from  the  figures  and  description  given  by  the  accurate  Neumeister, 
one  of  the  few  writers  on  pigeons  who,  as  I  have  found,  may  always 
be  trusted.  This  sub  race  seems  considerably  different.  The 
upper  part  of  the  oesophagus  is  much  less  distended.  The  bird 
stands  less  upright.  The  feet  are  not  feathered,  and  the  legs  and 
beak  are  shorter.  In  these  respects  there  is  an  approach  in  form 
to  the  common  rock-pigeon.  The  tail-feathers  are  very  long,  yet 
the  tips  of  the  closed  wings  extend  beyond  the  end  of  the  tail ;  and 
the  length  of  the  wings,  from  tip  to  tip,  and  of  the  body,  is  greater 
than  in  the  English  Pouter. 

Group   II. 

This  group  includes  three  Eaces,  namely,  Carriers,  Runts, 
and  Barbs,  which  are  manifestly  allied  to  each  other.  Indeed, 
certain  carriers  and  runts  pass  into  each  other  by  such  in- 
sensible gradations  that  an  arbitrary  line  has  to  be  diawn 
between  them.  Carriers  also  graduate  through  foreign  bi  eeda 
into  the  rock-pigeon.     Yet,  if  well-characterised  Carriers  and 

''  'Das    Ganze    der   Tanbenzucht :'  *  Boitard  and  Corbie, '  Les  Pigeons, 

Weimar,  1837,  pi.  11  and  12.  &c.,  p.  177,  pi.  G. 

11 


146  DOMESTIC    PIGEONS :  Chap.  V> 

Barbs  (see  figs.  19  and  20)  had  existed  as  wild  specie^,  no 
ornithologist  would  have  placed  them  in  the  same  genus 
with  each  other  or  with  the  rock-pigeon.  This  group  may, 
as  a  general  rule,  be  recognised  by  the  beak  being  long,  with 
the  skin  over  the  nostrils  swollen  and  often  carunculated  or 
wattled,  and  with  that  round  the  eyes  bare  and  likewise 
carunculated.  The  mouth  is  very  wide,  and  the  feet  are 
large.  Nevertheless  the  Barb,  which  must  be  classed  in  thia 
same  group,  has  a  very  short  beak,  and  some  runts  have  very 
little  bare  skin  round  their  eyes. 

■  Race  II. — Carriers.     (Tiirkische  Tauben ;    pigeons  turcs, 

dragons.) 

Seak  elongated,  narrow,  pointed;  eyes  surrounded  hy  much 
naked,  generally  carunculated,  shin  ;  neck  and  body  elongated. 

Siib-race  I.  The  English  Carrier. — This  is  a  fine  bird,  of  large  size^ 
close  feathered,  generally  dark-coloured,  with  an  elongated  neck. 
The  beak  is  attenuated  and  of  wonderful  length :  in  one  specimen 
it  was  I'd  inch  in  length  from  the  feathered  base  to  the  tip ;  there- 
fore nearly  twice  as  long  as  that  of  the  rock-pigeon,  which  measured 
only  '11.  Whenever  I  compare  proportionally  any  part  in  the 
carrier  and  rock-pigeon,  I  take  the  length  of  the  body  from  the 
base  of  the  beak  to  the  end  of  the  tail  as  the  standard  of  com- 
parison ;  and  according  to  this  standard,  the  beak  in  one  Carrier 
was  nearly  half  an  inch  longer  than  in  the  rock-pigeon.  The  upper 
mandible  is  often  slightly  arched.  The  tongue  is  very  long.  The 
development  of  the  carunculated  skin  or  wattle  round  the  eyes, 
over  the  nostrils,  and  on  the  lower  mandible,  is  prodigious.  The 
eyelids,  measured  longitudinally,  were  in  some  specimens  exactly 
twice  as  long  as  in  the  rock-pigeon.  The  external  orifice  or  furrow 
of  the  nostrils  was  also  twice  as  long.  The  open  mouth  in  its 
widest  part  was  in  one  case  '75  of  an  inch  in  width,  whereas  in  the 
rock-pigeon  it  is  only  about  '4  of  an  inch.  This  great  width  of 
mouth  is  shown  in  the  skeleton  by  the  reflexed  edges  of  the  ramus 
of  the  lower  jaw.  The  head  is  flat  on  the  summit  and  narrow 
between  the  orbits.  The  feet  are  large  and  coarse ;  the  length,  as 
measured  from  end  of  hind  toe  to  end  of  middle  toe  (without  the 
claws),  was  in  two  specimens  2'6  inches ;  and  this,  proportionally 
with  the  rock-pigeon,  is  an  excess  of  nearly  a  quarter  of  an  inch. 
One  very  fine  Carrier  measured  31 1  inches  from  tip  to  tip  of  wing. 
Birds  of  this  sub-race  are  too  valuable  to  be  flown  as  carriers. 

Sub-race  II.  Dragons ;  Persian  Carriers. — The  English  Dragon 
differs  from  the  improved  English  Carrier  in  being  smaller  in  all 
its  dimensicns,  and  in  having  less  wattle  round  the  eyes  and  over 


Chap.  V. 


DESCRIPTION    OF    BREEDS. 


147 


the  nostrils,  and  none  on  tlie  lower  mandible.  Sir  AV.  Elliot  sent 
me  from  Madras  a  Bagdad  Carrier  (sometimes  called  kliandesi),  the 
name  of  which  shows  its  Persian  origin :  it  would  be  considered 


/    ,/  U.i 


0'  mm 


^F^jiT- 


1' 


w 


hero  a  very  poor  Dragon ;  the  body  was  ot  the  size  of  the  rock- 
pigeon,  with  the  beak  a  little  longer,  namely,  1  inch  from  the  tip 
to  the  feathered  base.     The  skin  round  the  eyes  was  only  slightly 


148  DOMESTIC   riGEONS  :  Chap.  V^ 

wattled,  whilst  that  over  the  nostrils  was  fairly  wattled.  The  Hon. 
C  Murray,  also,  sent  me  two  Carriers  direct  from  Persia;  these 
had  nearly  the  same  character  as  the  Madras  bird,  being  about  as 
large  as  the  rock-pigeon,  but  the  beak  in  one  specimen  was  as  much 
as  1*15  in  length ;  the  skin  over  the  nostrils  was  only  moderately, 
and  that  round  the  eyes  scarcely  at  all  wattled. 

Suh-race  III.  Bagadotten- Tauhen  of  Neumeisfer  (Pavdotten-  or 
TTocker-Tauben). — I  owe  to  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Baily,  jun.,  a  dead 
specimen  of  this  singular  breed  imported  from  Germany.  It  is 
certaiuly  allied  to  theEunts;  nevertheless,  from  its  close  affinity 
with  Carriers,  it  will  be  convenient  here  to  describe  it.  The  beak 
is  long,  and  is  hooked  or  bowed  downwards  in  a  highly  remarkable 
manner,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  woodcut  to  be  hereafter  given  when 
I  treat  of  the  skeleton.  The  eyes  are  surrounded  by  a  wide  space 
of  bright  red  skin,  which,  as  well  as  that  over  the  nostrils,  is  mode- 
rately wattled.  The  breast-bone  is  remarkably  protuberant,  being 
abruptly  bowed  outwards.  The  feet  and  tarsi  are  of  great  length, 
larger  than  in  first-rate  English  Carriers.  The  whole  bird  is  of 
large  size,  but  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  body  the  feathers 
of  the  wing  and  tail  are  short ;  a  wild  rock-pigeon,  of  considerably 
less  size,  had  tail-feathers  4"6  inches  in  length,  whereas  in  the  largo 
Bagadotten  these  feathers  were  scarcely  over  4'1  inches  in  length. 
EiedeP  remarks  that  it  is  a  very  silent  bird. 

Sub-race  I V.  Bussorali  Carrier, — Two  specimens  were  sent  me 
by  Sir  W.  Elliot  from  Madras,  one  in  spirits  and  the  other  skinned. 
The  name  shows  its  Persian  origin.  It  is  much  valued  in  India, 
and  is  considered  as  a  distinct  breed  from  the  Bagdad  Carrier, 
which  forms  my  second  sub-race.  At  first  I  suspected  that  these 
two  sub-races  might  have  been  recently  formed  by  crosses  with 
other  breeds,  though  the  estimation  in  which  they  are  held  renders 
this  improbable  ;  but  in  a  Persian  treatise,^"  believed  to  have  been 
written  about  100  years  ago,  the  Bagdad  and  Bussorali  breeds 
are  described  as  distinct.  The  Bussorali  Carrier  is  of  about  the 
same  size  as  the  wild  rock-pigeon.  The  shape  of  the  beak,  with 
some  little  carunculated  skin  over  the  nostrils, — the  much  elongated 
eyelids, — the  broad  mouth  measured  internally, — the  narrow  head, 
— the  feet  proportionally  a  little  longer  than  in  the  rock-pigeon, — 
and  the  general  appearance,  all  show  that  this  bird  is  an  undoubted 
Carrier;  yet  in  one  specimen  the  beak  was  of  exactly  the  same 
length  as  in  the  rock-pigeon.  In  the  other  specimen  the  beak  (as 
well  as  the  opening  of  the  nostrils)  was  only  a  very  little  longer, 
viz.,  hy  '08  of  an  inch.  Although  there  was  a  considerable  space 
of  bare  and  slightly  carunculated  skin  round  the  eyes,  that  over 
the  nostrils  was  only  in  a  slight  degree  rugose.     Sir  W.  Elliot 


*  *  Die  TaTibenzucht,'Ulm,  1824,5.  in  1770:  I  owe  to  the  great  kindness 

•12.  of  Sir  W.  Elliot  a  translation  of  this 

*^  This    treatise    was    written    by  curious  t/eatise. 
Sav^id  Mohammed  Musari,  who  died 


Chap.  V.  DESCRIPTION   OF   BREEDS.  149 

informs  me  that  in  the  living  bird  the  eye  seems  remarkably  large 
and  prominent,  and  the  same  fact  is  noticed  in  the  Persian  treatise ; 
but  the  bony  orbit  is  barely  larger  than  that  in  the  rock-pigeon. 

Amongst  the  several  breeds  sent  to  me  from  Madras  by  Sir  W. 
Elliot  there  is  a  pair  of  the  Kali  Par^  black  birds  with  the  beak 
Blightly  elongated,  with  the  skin  oyer  the  nostrils  rather  full,  and 
with  a  little  naked  skin  round  the  eyes.  This  breed  seems  more 
closely  allied  to  the  Carrier  than  to  any  other  breed,  being  nearly 
intermediate  between  the  Bussorah  Carrier  and  the  rock-pigeon. 

The  names  applied  in  different  parts  of  Europe  and  in  India  to 
the  several  kinds  of  Carriers  all  point  to  Persia  or  the  surrounding 
countries  as  the  source  of  this  Eace.  And  it  deserves  especial 
notice  that,  even  if  we  neglect  the  Kali  Par  as  of  doubtful  origin, 
we  get  a  series  broken  by  very  small  steps,  from  the  rock-pigeon, 
through  the  Bussorah,  which  sometimes  has  a  beak  not  at  all  longer 
than  that  of  the  rock-pigeon  and  with  the  nakf^d  skin  round  the 
eyes  and  over  the  nostrils  very  slightly  swollen  and  carunculated, 
through  the  Bagdad  sub-race  and  Dragons,  to  our  improved  English 
Carriers,  which  present  so  marvellous  a  difference  from  the  rock- 
pigeon  or  Columha  livia. 

Race  III. — Rqnts.  (Scanderoons :  die  Florentiner  Tauben 
and  Hinkeltauben  of  Neumeister ;  pigeon  bagadais.  pigeon 
remain.) 

Beak  long,  massive  ;  hodu  of  great  size. 

Inextricable  confusion  reigns  in  the  classification,  aflSnities,  and 
naming  of  Runts.  Several  characters  which  are  generally  pretty 
constant  in  other  pigeons,  such  as  the  length  of  the  wings,  tail, 
legs,  and  neck,  and  the  amount  of  naked  skin  round  the  eyes,  are 
excessively  variable  in  Eunts.  "When  the  naked  skin  over  the 
nostrils  and  round  the  eyes  is  considerably  developed  and  wattled, 
and  when  the  size  of  body  is  not  very  great.  Runts  graduate  in  so 
insensible  a  manner  into  Carriers,  that  the  distinction  is  quite 
arbitrary.  This  fact  is  likewise  shown  by  the  names  given  to  them 
in  different  parts  of  Europe.  Nevertheless,  taking  the  most  distinct 
forms,  at  least  five  sub-races  (some  of  them  including  well-marked 
varieties)  can  be  distinguished,  which  differ  in  such  important 
points  of  structure,  that  they  would  be  considered  as  good  species 
in  a  state  of  nature. 

Siib-nice  I.  Scanderoon  of  English  Writers  (die  Florentiner  and 
Hinkeltauben  of  Neumeister). — Birds  of  this  sub-race,  of  which 
I  kept  one  alive  and  have  since  seen  two  others,  differ  from  the 
Bagadotten  of  Neumeister  only  in  not  having  the  beak  nearly  so 
much  curved  downwards,  and  in  the  naked  skin  round  the  eyes 
and  over  the  nostrils  being  hardly  at  all  wattled.  Nevertheless 
I  have  felt  myself  compelled  to  place  the  Bagadotten  in  Race  II., 
or  that  of  the  Carriers,  and  the  present  bird  in  Race  III.,  or  that  of 


1 50  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS  :  Chap.  V 

the  Eants.  The  Scanderoon  has  a  very  short,  narrow,  accl  elevated 
tail ;  wings  extremely  short,  so  that  the  first  primary  feathers  were 
not  longer  than  those  of  a  small  tumbler  pigeon  I  Neck  long,  much 
bowed ;  breast-bone  prominent.  Beak  long,  being  1-15  inch  from 
tip  to  feathered  base ;  vertically  thick ;  slightly  curved  downwards. 
The  skin  over  the  nostrils  swollen,  not  wattled ;  naked  skin  round 
the  eyes,  broad,  slightly  carunculated.  Legs  long ;  feet  very  large. 
Skin  of  neck  bright  red,  often  showing  a  naked  medial  line,  with 
a  naked  red  patch  at  the  distal  end  of  the  radius  of  the  wing. 
My  bird,  as  measured  from  the  base  of  the  beak  to  the  root  of  the 
tail,  was  fully  2  inches  longer  than  the  rock-pigeon ;  yet  the  tail 
itself  was  only  4  inches  in  length,  whereas  in  the  rock-pigeon, 
which  is  a  much  smaller  bird,  the  tail  is  4f  inches  in  length. 

The  Hinkel-  or  Florentiner  Taube  of  Neumeister  (Table  XIII., 
fig.  1)  agrees  with  the  above  description  in  all  the  specified  charac- 
ters (for  the  beak  is  not  mentioned),  except  that  Neumeister 
expressly  says  that  the  neck  is  short,  whereas  in  my  Scanderoon 
it  was  r<3markably  long  and  bowed;  so  that  the  Hinkel  forms  a 
well-marked  variety. 

Sub -race  II.  Pigeon  cygne  and  Pigeon  dagadais  of  Boitard  and 
CorMe  (Scanderoon  of  French  writers). — I  kept  two  of  these  birds 
alive,  imported  from  France.  They  differed  from  the  first  sub-race 
or  true  Scanderoon  In  the  much  greater  length  of  the  wing  and 
tail,  in  the  beak  not  being  so  long,  and  in  the  skin  about  the  head 
being  more  carunculated.  The  skin  of  the  neck  is  red ;  but  the 
naked  patches  on  the  wings  are  absent.  One  of  my  birds  measured 
382  inches  from  tip  to  tip  of  wing.  By  taking  the  length  of  the 
body  as  the  standard  of  comparison,  the  two  wings  were  no  less 
than  5  inches  longer  than  those  of  the  rock-pigeon  !  The  tail  was 
6r  inches  in  length,  and  therefore  2t  inches  longer  than  that  of  the 
Scanderoon, — a  bird  of  nearly  the  same  size.  The  beak  is  longer, 
thicker,  and  broader  than  in  the  rock-pigeon,  proportionally  with 
the  size  of  body.  The  eyelids,  nostrils,  and  internal  gape  of  mouth 
are  all  proportionally  very  large,  as  in  Carriers.  The  foot,  from  the 
end  of  the  middle  to  end  of  hind  toe,  was  actually  2-85  inches  in 
length,  which  is  an  excess  of  '32  of  an  inch  over  the  foot  of  the  rock- 
pigeon,  proportionally  to  the  relative  size  of  the  two  birds. 

Sub-race  III.  Spanish  and  Roman  Punts. — I  am  not  sure  that  I 
am  right  in  placing  these  Eunts  in  a  distinct  sub-race  ;  yet,  if  we 
take  well-characterized  birds,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  propriety 
of  the  separation.  They  are  heavy,  massive  birds,  with  shorter 
necks,  legs,  and  beaks  than  in  the  foregoing  races.  The  skin  over 
the  nostrils  is  swollen,  but  not  carunculated  ;  the  naked  skin  round 
the  eyes  is  not  very  wide,  and  only  slightly  carunculated ;  and  I 
have  seen  a  fine  so-called  Spanish  Eunt  with  hardly  any  naked  skin 
round  the  eyes.  Of  the  two  varieties  to  be  seen  in  England,  one, 
which  is  the  rarer,  has  very  long  wings  and  tail,  and  agrees  pretty 
closely  with  the  last  sub-race ;  the  other,  with  shorter  wings  and 
tail,  is  apparently  the  Pigeon  romain  ordinaire  of  Boitard  and  Corbi4 


Chap.  V  DESCRIPTION   OF   BREEDS.  151 

These  Eunts  are  apt  to  tremble  like  Fantails.  They  are  bad  flyers. 
A  few  years  ago  Mr.  Gulliver  ^^  exhibited  a  Eunt  which  weighed  1  lb, 
14  oz. ;  and,  as  T.  am  informed  by  Mr.  Tegetmeier,  two  Eunts  from 
the  south  of  France  were  lately  exhibited  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  each 
of  which  weighed  2  lbs.  25-  oz.  A  very  fine  rock- pigeon  from  the 
Shetland  Islands  weighed  only  14:^  oz. 

Sub-race  IV.  Troiifo  0/  JIdrovandi  (Leghorn  Eunt  ?). — In  Aldro- 
vandi's  work  published  in  1600  there  is  a  coarse  woodcut  of  a  great 
Italian  pigeon,  with  an  elevated  tail,  short  legs,  massive  body,  and 
with  the  beak  short  and  thick.  I  had  imagined  that  this  latter 
character  so  abnormal  in  the  group,  was  merely  a  false  representa- 
tion from  bad  drawing;  but  Moore,  in  his  work  published  in  1735, 
says  that  he  possessed  a  Leghorn  Eunt  of  which  "  the  beak  Mas 
very  short  for  so  large  a  bird."  In  other  respects  Moore's  bird 
resembled  the  first  sub-race  or  Scanderoon,  for  it  had  a  long  bowed 
neck,  long  legs,  short  beak,  and  elevated  tail,  and  not  much  wattle 
about  the  head.  So  that  Aldrovandi's  and  Moore's  birds  must  have 
formed  distinct  varieties,  both  of  which  seem  to  be  now  extinct  in 
Europe.  Sir  W.  Elliot,  however,  informs  me  that  he  has  seen  in 
Madras  a  short-beaked  Eunt  imported  from  Cairo. 

Sub-race  V.  Murassa  (adorned  Pigeon)  of  Madras. — Skins  of  these 
handsome  chequered  birds  were  sent  me  from  Madras  by  Sir  W. 
Elliot.  They  are  rather  larger  than  the  largest  rock-pigeon,  with 
longer  and  more  massive  beaks.  The  skin  over  the  nostrils  is  rather 
full  and  very  slightly  carunculated,  and  they  have  some  naked  skin 
round  the  eyes ;  feet  large.  This  breed  is  intermediate  between  the 
rock-pigeon  and  a  very  poor  variety  of  Eunt  or  Carrier. 

From  these  several  descriptions  we  see  that  with  Eunts,  as  with 
Carriers,  we  have  a  fine  gradation  from  the  rock-pigeon  (with  the 
Tronfo  diverging  as  a  distinct  branch)  to  our  largest  and  most 
massive  Eunts.  But  the  chain  of  afQnities,  and  many  points  of  re- 
semblance, between  Eunts  and  carriers,  make  me  believe  that  theso 
two  races  have  not  descended  by  independent  lines  irom  the  rock- 
pigeon,  but  from  some  common  parent,  as  represenfed  in  the  Table, 
which  had  already  acquired  a  moderately  long  beak  with  vSlightly 
swollen  skin  over  the  nostrils,  and  with  some  slightly  carunculated 
naked  skin  round  the  eyes. 

Race  IV. — Barbs.     (Indische  Tauben  ;  pigeons  polonai«.) 

Beak  short,  broad,  deep  ;  nalced  skin  round  the  eyes,  hroad  and 
carunculated  ;  skin  over  nostrils  slightly  swollen. 

Misled  by  the  extraordinary  shortness  and  form  of  the  beak,  I  did 
not  at  first  perceive  the  near  affinity  of  this  Eace  to  that  of  Carriers 
until  the  fact  was  pointed  out  to  me  by  Mr.  Brent.  Subsequently, 
aftor  examining  the  Bussorah  Carrier,  I  saw  that  no  very  great  amount 


"  '  Poultry   Chronicle,'  vol.    ii.    p.  573. 


152 


DOMESTIC    PIGEONS 


Chap.  Y 


of  modification  would  be  requisite  to  convert  it  into  a  Barb.  This 
yiew  of  the  affinity  of  Barbs  to  Carriers  is  supported  by  the 
analogical  difference  between  the  short  and  long-beaked  Eunts ;  and 


Still  more  strongly  by  the  fact,  that  young  Barbs  and  Dragons, 
within  24  hours  after  being  hatched,  resemble  each  other  much  more 
closely  than  do  young  pigeons  of  other  and  equally  distinct  breeds.* 


Chap.  V.  DESCEIPTION    OF   BREEDS.  ]  53 

At  this  early  age,  the  length  of  beak,  the  swollen  skin  over  the 
rather  open  nostrils,  the  gape  of  the  mouth,  and  the  size  of  the  feet, 
are  the  same  in  both;  although  these  parts  afterwards  become 
widely  different.  We  thus  see  that  embryology  (as  the  comparison 
of  very  young  animals  may  perhaps  be  called)  comes  into  play  iii 
the  classification  of  domestic  varieties,  as  with  species  in  a  state  of 
nature. 

Fanciers,  with  some  truth,  compare  the  head  and  beak  of  the 
Barb  to  that  of  a  bullfinch.  The  Barb,  if  found  in  a  state  of  nature 
would  certainly  have  been  placed  in  a  new  genus  formed  for  its 
reception.  The  body  is  a  little  larger  than  that  of  the  rock-pigeon, 
but  the  beak  is  more  than  "2  of  an  inch  shorter;  although  shorter 
it  is  both  vertically  and  horizontally  thicker.  From  the  outward 
flexure  of  the  rami  of  the  lower  jaw,  the  mouth  internally  is  very 
broad,  in  the  proportion  of  -6  to  '4:  to  that  of  the  rock-pigeon.  The 
whole  head  is  broad.  The  skin  over  the  nostril  is  swollen,  but  not 
carunculated,  except  slightly  in  first-rate  birds  when  old ;  whilst  the 
naked  skin  round  the  eye  is  broad  and  much  carunculated.  It  is 
sometimes  so  much  developed,  that  a  bird  belonging  to  Mr.  Harrison 
^Yeir  could  hardly  see  to  pick  up  food  from  the  ground.  The 
eyelids  in  one  specimen  were  nearly  twice  as  long  as  those  of  the 
rock-pigeon.  The  feet  are  coarse  and  strong,  but  proportionally 
rather  shorter  than  in  the  rock-pigeon.  The  plumage  is  generally 
dark  and  uniform.  Barbs,  in  short,  may  be  called  short-beaked 
Carriers,  bearing  the  same  relation  to  Carriers  that  the  Tronfo  of 
Aldrovandi  does  to  the  common  Eunt. 

Group  III. 

This  group  is  artificial,  and  includes  a  heterogeneous  collec- 
tion of  distinct  forms.  It  may  be  defined  by  the  beak,  in 
well-characterized  specimens  of  the  several  races,  being 
shorter  than  in  the  rock-pigeon,  and  by  the  skin  round  the 
eyes  not  being  much  developed. 

Pace  V. — Fantails. 

Siib-race  I.  European  Fa)/ tails  (Pfauentauben ;  trembleurs). 
Tail  expanded,  directed  upwards,  formed  of  many  feathers ;  oil-ylaud 
aborted ;  body  and  beak  rather  short. 

The  normal  number  of  tail-feathers  in  the  genua  Columba  is  12 ; 
but  Fantails  have  from  only  12  (as  has  been  asserted)  up  to, 
according  to  MM.  Boitard  and  Corbie,  42.  I  have  counted  in  one 
of  my  own  birds  33,  and  at  Calcutta  Mr.  Blyth^^  has  counted  in  an 
imj-erfed  tail  34  feathers.     In  Madras,  as  I  am  informed  by  Sir  AV. 


'Aunals  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  History,'  vol.  six.,  1847,  p.  105. 


154  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS  :  Chap.  V 

Elliot,  32  is  the  standard  number ;  but  in  England  number  is  much 


less  valued  than  the  position  and  expansion  of  the  tail.    The  feathers 
arc  arranged  in  an  irregular  double  row ;  their  permanent  fanlike 


CiiAV.  V.  DESCRIPTION   OF   BREEDS.  155 

expansion  and  tlieir  upward  direction  are  more  remarkable  characters 
than  their  increased  number.  The  tail  is  capable  of  the  same  move- 
ments as  in  other  pigeons,  and  can  be  depressed  so  as  to  sweep  the 
ground.  It  arises  from  a  more  expanded  basis  than  in  other  pigeons ; 
and  in  three  skeletons  there  were  one  or  two  extra  coccygeal  vertebra). 
I  have  examined  many  specimens  of  various  colours  from  different 
countries,  and  there  was  no  trace  of  the  oil-gland ;  this  is  a  curious 
case  of  abortion.^^  The  neck  is  thin  and  bowed  backwards.  The 
breast  is  broad  and  protuberant.  The  feet  are  small.  The  carriage 
of  the  bird  is  very  different  from  that  of  other  pigeons;  in  good 
birds  the  head  touches  the  tail-feathers,  which  consequently  often 
become  crumpled.  They  habitually  tremble  much  :  and  their  necks 
have  an  extraordinary,  apparently  convulsive,  backward  and  forward 
movement.  Good  birds  walk  in  a  singular  manner,  as  if  their  small 
feet  were  stiff.  Owing  to  their  large  tails,  they  fly  badly  on  a  windy 
day.  The  dark-coloured  varieties  are  generally  larger  than  white 
Fantails. 

Although  between  the  best  and  common  Fantails,  now  existing  in 
England,  there  is  a  vast  difference  in  the  position  and  size  of  the 
tail,  in  the  carriage  of  the  head  and  neck,  in  the  convulsive  move- 
ments of  the  neck,  in  the  manner  of  walking,  and  in  the  breadth  of 
the  breast,  the  differences  so  graduate  away,  that  it  is  impossible  to 
make  more  than  one  sub-race.  Moore,  however,  an  excellent  old 
authority,^*  says,  that  in  1785  there  were  two  sorts  of  broad-tailed 
shakers  (^.  e.  fantails),  "  one  having  a  neck  much  longer  and  more 
slender  than  the  other ;"  and  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  B.  P.  Brent, 
that  there  is  an  existing  German  Fantail  with  a  thicker  and  shorter 
beak. 

Sub-race  J  I.  Java  Fantail. — Mr.  Swinhoe  sent  me  from  Amoy,  in 
China,  the  skin  of  a  Fantail  belonging  to  a  breed  known  to  have 
been  imported  from  Java.  It  was  coloured  in  a  peculiar  manner, 
unlike  any  European  Fantail ;  and,  for  a  Fantail,  had  a  remarkably 
short  beak.  Although  a  good  bird  of  the  kind,  it  had  only  14  tail- 
feathers  ;  but  Mr.  Swinhoe  has  counted  in  other  birds  of  this  breed 
from  18  to  24  tail-feathers.  From  a  rough  sketch  sent  to  me,  it  is 
evident  that  the  tail  is  not  so  much  expanded  or  go  much  upraised 
as  in  even  second-rate  European  Fantails.  The  bird  shakes  its  neck 
like  our  Fantails.  It  had  a  well-developed  oil-gland.  Fantails 
were  known  in  India,  as  we  shall  hereafter  see,  before  the  year  1600  ; 
and  we  may  suspect  that  in  the  Java  Fantail  we  see  the  breed  in 
its  earlier  and  less  improved  condition. 


'^  This  gland  occurs  in  most  birds  ;  species   of  Columba,  which  are  desti- 

but  Nitzsch  (in  his  '  Pterylographie,'  tute  of  an  oil-gland,  have  an  unusual 

1840,  p.  55)  states   that  it   is  absent  number   of  tail-feathers,  namely   16, 

in  two  species  of  Columba,  in  several  and  in  this  respect  resemble  Fantails. 

spncies  of  Psittacus,  in  some  species  of  '*  See  «he  two    excellent   editions 

Otis,  and  in   most  or  all  birds  of  the  published  by  Mr.  J.  M.  Eaton  in  1852 

Ostrich  family.     It  can  hardly  be  an  .  and    1858,    entitled    'A    Treatise  on 

accideutal   coincidence  that    the   two  Fancy  Pigeons.' 


156  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS:  Chap.  V. 


Eace   VI. — TURBIT  AND   OwL,      (Moveiitaubeii ;    pigeons  a 

cravate.) 

Feathers  divergent  along  the  front  of  the  neck  and  breast ;  beak 
very  short,  vertically  rather  thick  ;  oesophagus  somewhat  enlarged. 

Turbits  and  Owls  differ  from  each  other  slightly  in  the  shape  of 
the  head;  the  former  have  a  crest,  and  the  beak  is  differently 
curved ;  but  they  may  be  here  conveniently  grouped  together. 
These  pretty  birds,  some  of  which  are  very  small,  can  be  recognised 
at  once  by  the  feathers  irregularly  diverging,  like  a  frill,  along  the 
front  of  the  neck,  in  the  same  manner,  but  in  a  less  degree,  as  along 
the  back  of  the  neck  in  the  Jacobin.  They  have  the  remarkable 
habit  of  continually  and  momentarily  inflating  the  upper  part  of 
the  oesophagus,  which  causes  a  movement  in  the  frill.  "When 
the  oesophagus  of  a  dead  bird  is  inflated,  it  is  seen  to  be  larger  than 
in  other  breeds,  and  not  so  distinctly  separated  from  the  crop. 
The  Pouter  inflates  both  its  true  crop  and  oesophagus;  the  Turbit 
inflates  in  a  much  less  degree  the  oesophagus  alone.  The  beak  of 
the  Turbit  is  very  short,  being  '28  of  an  inch  shorter  than  that  of  the 
rock-pigeon,  proportionally  with  the  size  of  their  bodies;  and  in 
some  owls  brought  by  Mr.  E.  Vernon  Harcourt  from  Tunis,  it  was 
even  shorter.  The  beak  is  vertically  thicker,  and  perhaps  a  little 
broader,  in  proportion  to  that  of  the  rock-pigeon. 

Hace   VII. — Tumblers.      (Tummler,    or   Burzeltauben ;    cul- 

butants.) 

During  flight,  tumble  backwards ;  body  generally  small ;  beak 
generally  short,  sometimes  excessively  short  and  conical. 

This  race  may  be  divided  into  four  sub-races,  namely,  Persian, 
liOtan,  Common,  and  short-faced  Tumblers.  These  sub-races  in- 
clude many  varieties  which  breed  true.  I  have  examined  eight 
skeletons  of  various  kinds  of  Tumblers  :  excepting  in  one  imperfect 
and  doubtful  specimen,  the  ribs  are  only  seven  in  number,  whereas 
the  rock-pigeon  has  eight  ribs. 

Sub-race  I.  Persian  Tumblers. — I  received  a  pair  direct  from  Persia, 
from  the  Hon.  C.  Murray.  They  are  rather  smaller  birds  than  the 
wild  rock-pigeon,  about  the  size  of  the  common  dovecot  pigeon, 
white  and  mottled,  slightly  feathered  on  the  feet,  with  the  beak  just 
perceptibly  shorter  than  in  the  rock-pigeon.  H.M.  Consul,  Mr. 
Keith  Abbott,  informs  me  that  the  difference  in  the  length  of  beak  is 
po  slight,  that  only  practised  Persian  fanciers  can  distinguish  these 
Tumblers  from  the  common  pigeon  of  the  country.  He  informs  me 
that  they  fly  in  flocks  high  up  in  the  air  and  tumble  well.     Some  of 


Chap.  V. 


DESCEIPTION    OF   BREEDS. 


157 


them  occasionally  appear  to  become  giddy  and  tumble  to  the  groimd, 
in  which  respect  they  resemble  some  of  our  Tumblers. 


,./,^<^ ' 


Quh-race  II.  Lotan,  or  Lowtun :  Indian  Ground  Tumblers. — These 
birds  present  one  of  the  most  remarkable  inherited  habits  or  instincts 
ever  recorded.    The  specimons  sent  to  me  from  Madras  by  Sir  \V. 


]  58  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS  I  Chap.  V 

Elliot  are  -white,  slightly  feathered  on  the  feet,  with  the  feathers 
on  the  head  reversed ;  and  they  are  rather  smaller  than  the  rock  or 
dovecot  pigeon.  The  beak  is  proportionally  only  slightly  shorter 
and  rather  thinner  than  in  the  rock-pigeon.  These  birds  when 
gently  shaken  and  placed  on  the  ground  immediately  begin  tumbling 
head  over  heels,  and  they  continue  thus  to  tumble  until  taken  up 
and  soothed, — the  ceremony  being  generally  to  blow  in  their  faces, 
as  in  recovering  a  person  from  a  state  of  hypnotism  or  mesmerism. 
It  is  asserted  that  they  will  continue  to  roll  over  till  they  die,  if  not 
taken  up.  There  is  abundant  evidence  with  respect  to  these  remark- 
able peculiarities;  but  what  makes  the  case  the  more  worthy  of 
attention  is,  that  the  habit  has  been  inherited  since  before  the  year 
1600,  for  the  breed  is  distinctly  described  in  the  '  Ayeen  Akbery.'  ^^ 
Mr.  Evans  kept  a  pair  in  London,  imported  by  Captain  Vigne ;  and 
he  assures  me  that  he  has  seen  them  tumble  in  the  air,  as  well  as  in 
the  manner  above  described  on  the  ground.  Sir  W.  Elliot,  however, 
writes  to  me  from  Madras,  that  he  is  informed  that  they  tumble 
exclusively  on  the  ground,  or  at  a  very  small  height  above  it.  He 
also  mentions  birds  of  another  sub-variety,  called  the  Kalmi  Lotan, 
which  begin  to  roll  over  if  only  touched  on  the  neck  with  a  rod  or 
wand. 

Sub-rare  III.  Common  English  Tumhlers. — These  birds  have 
exactly  the  same  habits  as  the  Persian  Tumbler,  but  tumble  better. 
The  English  bird  is  rather  smaller  than  the  Persian,  and  the  beak 
is  plainly  shorter.  Compared  with  the  rock-pigeon,  and  propor- 
tionally with  the  size  of  body,  the  beak  is  from  T5  to  nearly  "2  of 
an  inch  shorter,  but  it  is  not  thinner.  There  are  several  varieties 
of  the  common  Tumbler,  namely,  Baldheads,  Beards,  and  Dutch 
Ptollers.  I  have  kept  the  latter  alive  ;  they  have  differently  shaped 
heads,  longer  necks,  and  are  feather- footed.  They  tumble  to  an 
extraordinary  degree  ;  as  Mr.  Brent  remarks,^^  "  Every  few  seconds 
"  over  they  go  ;  one,  two,  or  three  summersaults  at  a  time.  Here 
"  and  there  a  bird  gives  a  very  quick  and  rapid  spin,  revolving  like 
"  a  wheel,  though  they  sometimes  lose  their  balance,  and  make  a 
"  rather  ungraceful  fall,  in  which  they  occasionally  hurt  themselves 
"  by  striking  some  object."  From  Madras  I  have  received  several 
specimens  of  the  common  Tumbler  of  India,  differing  slightly  from 
each  other  in  the  length  of  their  beaks.  Mr.  Brent  sent  me  a  dead 
specimen  of  a  "  House-tumbler," "  which  is  a  Scotch  variety,  not 


16  English  translation,  by  F.  Glad-  seen  at  any  of  the  Calcutta  bird- 
win,  4tii  edition,  vol.  i.     The  habit  dealers." 

of  the  Lotan  is  also  described  in  the  is '.Journal  of  Horticulture,'  Oct. 

Persian   treatise   before   alluded   to,  22, 1861,  p.  76. 

published  about  100  years  ago:  at  this  '^"f  See  the  account  of  the  House- 
date  the  Lotans  were  generally  white  tumblers  kept  at  Glasgow,  in  the 
and  crested  as  at  present.  Mr.  Blyth  '  Cottage  Gardener,'  1858,  p.  285. 
describes  these  birds  in' Annals  and  Also  Mr.  Brent's  paper,  '  Journal  of 
Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.,'  vol.  xiv.,  1847,  Horticulture,'  1861,  p.  76. 
p.  101;  he  says  that  they  "may  be 


Chap.  V.  DESCRIPTION    OF    BKEEDS.  159 

differing  in  general  appearance  and  form  of  beak  from  the  common 
Tumbler.  Mr.  Brent  states  that  these  birds  generally  begin  to 
tumble  "  almost  as  soon  as  they  can  well  fly  ;  at  three  months  old 
"  they  tumble  well,  but  still  fly  strong ;  at  five  or  six  months  they 
"  tumble  excessively  ;  and  in  the  second  year  they  mostly  give  up 
"  flying,  on  account  of  their  tumbling  so  much  and  so  close  to  the 
"  ground.  Some  fly  round  with  the  flock,  throwing  a  clean  summer- 
"  sault  every  few  yards,  till  they  are  obliged  to  settle  from  giddiness 
"  and  exhaustion.  These  are  called  Air  Tumblers,  and  they  com- 
"  monly  throw  from  twenty  to  thirty  summersaults  in  a  minute, 
^•'  each  clear  and  clean.  I  have  one  red  cock  that  I  have  on  two  or 
"^hree  occasions  timed  by  my  watch,  and  counted  forty  summer- 
'•  sanlts  in  the  minute.  Others  tumble  differcTitly.  At  first  they 
"  throw  a  single  summersault,  then  it  is  double,  till  it  becomes  a 
"  continuous  roll,  which  puts  an  end  to  flying,  for  if  they  fly  a  few 
"  yards  over  they  go,  and  roll  till  they  reach  the  ground.  Thus  I 
"  had  one  kill  herself,  and  another  broke  his  leg.  Many  of  them 
"  turn  over  only  a  few  inches  from  the  ground,  and  will  tumble  two 
"  or  three  times  in  flying  across  their  loft.  These  are  called  House- 
"  tumblers,  from  tumbling  in  the  house.  The  act  of  tumbling  seems 
"  to  be  one  over  which  they  have  no  control,  an  involuntary  move- 
"■  ment  which  they  seem  to  try  to  prevent.  I  have  seen  a  bird  some- 
"  times  in  his  struggles  fly  a  yard  or  two  straight  upwards,  the 
"  impulse  forcing  him  backwards  while  he  struggles  to  go  forwards. 
"  If  suddenly  startled,  or  in  a  strange  place,  they  seem  less  able  to 
"  fly  than  if  quiet  in  their  accustomed  loft."  These  House-tumblers 
differ  from  the  Lotan  or  Ground  Tumbler  of  India,  in  not  requiring 
to  be  shaken  in  order  to  begin  tumbling.  The  breed  has  probably 
been  formed  merely  by  selecting  the  best  common  Tumblers,  though 
it  is  possible  that  they  may  have  been  crossed  at  some  former  period 
with  Lotans. 

Sub-race  IV.  Short-faced  TuwibJers. — These  are  marvellous  birds, 
and  are  the  glory  and  pride  of  many  fanciers.  In  their  extremely 
short,  sharp,  and  conical  beaks,  with  the  skin  over  the  nostrils  but 
little  developed,  they  almost  depart  from  the  type  of  the  Columbidse. 
Their  heads  are  nearly  globular  and  upright  in  front,  so  that  some 
fanciers  say  ^^  *'  the  head  should  resemble  a  cherry  with  a  barley- 
corn stuck  in  it."  These  are  the  smallest  kind  of  pigeons.  Mr. 
Esquilant  possessed  a  blue  Baldhead,  tvro  years  old,  which  when 
alive  weighed,  before  feeding-time,  only  6  oz.  5  drs. ;  two  others, 
each  weighed  7  oz.  We  have  seen  that  a  wild  rock-pigeon  weighed 
14  oz.  2  drs.,  and  a  Eunt  34  oz.  4  drs.  Short- faced  Tumblers  have 
a  remarkably  erect  carriage,  with  prominent  breasts,  drooping  wings, 
and  very  small  feet.  The  length  of  the  beak  from  the  tip  to  the 
feathered  base  was  in  one  good  bird  only  '4  of  an  inch ;  in  a  wild 
rock-pigeon  it  was  exactly  double  this  length.  As  these  Tumblers 
have  shorter  bodies  than  the  wild  rock-pigeon,  they  ought  of  course 


J.  M.  Eaton's  'Trojitise  on  Pigeons,'  1852,  p.  9. 


160  DOMESTIC  flGEONS :  Chap,  V 

to  have  shorter  beaks;  but  proportionally  with  the  size  of  the  body, 


the  beak  is  '28  of  an  inch  too  short.    So,  again,  the  feet  of  this  bird 


Ohap.  V.  DESCEIPTION   OF   BREEDS.  161 

were  actually  '45  shorter,  and  proportionally  '21  of  an  inch  shorter, 
than  the  feet  of  the  rock-pigeon.  The  middle  toe  has  only  twelve 
or  thirteen,  instead  of  fourteen  or  fifteen  scutellaB.  The  primary 
wing-feathers  are  not  rarely  nine  instead  of  ten  in  number.  The 
improved  short -faced  Tumblers  have  almost  lost  the  power  of 
tumbling ;  but  there  are  several  authentic  accounts  of  their  occa- 
sionally tumbling.  There  are  several  sub-varieties,  such  as  Bald- 
heads,  Beards,  Mottles,  and  Almonds;  the  latter  are  remarkable 
from  not  acquiring  their  perfectly-coloured  plumage  until  they  have 
moulted  three  or  four  times.  There  is  good  reason  to  believe  that 
most  of  these  sub- varieties,  some  of  which  breed  truly,  have  arisen 
since  the  publication  of  Moore's  treatise  in  1785.^^ 

Finally,  in  regard  to  the  whole  group  of  Tumblers,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  conceive  a  more  perfect  gradation  than  I  have  now  lying 
before  me,  from  the  rock-pigeon,  through  Persian,  Lotan,  and 
common  Tumblers,  up  to  the  marvellous  short-faced  birds  ;  which 
latter,  no  ornithologist,  judging  from  mere  external  structure,  would 
place  in  the  same  genius  with  the  rock-pigeon.  The  differences 
between  the  successive  steps  in  this  series  are  not  greater  than  those 
which  may  be  observed  between  common  dovecot-pigeons  (C.  livia) 
brought  from  different  countries. 

Eace  YIII. — Indian  Frill-back. 
Beak  very  sJiort ;  feathers  reversed. 

A  specimen  of  this  bird,  in  spirits,  was  sent  to  me  from  Madras 
by  Sir  W.  Elliot.  It  is  wholly  different  from  the  Frill-back  often 
exhibited  in  England.  It  is  a  smallish  bird,  about  the  size  of  the 
common  Tumbler,  but  has  a  beak  in  all  its  proportions  like  our 
short-faced  Tumblers.  The  beak,  measured  from  the  tip  to  the 
feathered  base,  was  only  46  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  feathers 
over  the  whole  body  are  reversed  or  curl  backwards.  Had  this  bird 
occurred  in  Europe,  I  should  have  thought  it  only  a  monstrous 
variety  of  our  improved  Tumbler :  but  as  short-faced  Tumblers  are 
not  known  in  India,  I  think  it  must  rank  as  a  distinct  breed.  Pro- 
bably this  is  the  breed  seen  by  Hasselquist  in  1757  at  Cairo,  and 
said  to  have  been  imported  from  India. 

Race  IX. — Jacobin.     (Zopf-  or  Perrfickentaube ;  nonnain.) 

Feathers  of  the  neck  forming  a  hood ;  wings  and  tail  long ;  heak 
moderately  short. 

This  pigeon  can  at  once  be  recognised  by  its  hood,  almost  enclos- 
ing the  head  and  meeting  in  front  of  the  neck.  The  hood  seems  to 
be  merely  an  exaggeration  of  the  crest  of  reversed  feathers  on  the 
back  of  the  head,  which  is  common  to  many  sub-varieties,  and 


19  J.  M.  Eaton's  Treatise,  edit.  1858,  p.  76. 
12 


162  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS  I  Cuap.  Y. 

\vhicli  in  the  Latztaube  ^°  is  in  a  nearly  intermediate  state  between 
a  hood  and  a  crest.  The  feathers  of  the  hood  are  elongated.  Both 
the  wings  and  tail  are  likewise  much  elongated ;  thus  the  folded 
wing  of  the  Jacobin,  though  a  somewhat  smaller  bird,  is  fully  li 
inch  longer  than  in  the  rock-pigeon.  Taking  the  length  of  the 
body  without  the  tail  as  the  standard  of  comparison,  the  folded  wing, 
proportionally  with  the  wings  of  the  rock-pigeon,  is  2k  inches  too 
long,  and  the  two  wings,  from  tip  to  tip,  5i  inches  too  long.  In 
disposition  this  bird  is  singularly  quiet,  seldom  flying  or  moving 
about,  as  Bechstein  and  Eiedel  have  likewise  remarked  in 
Germany.^^  The  latter  author  also  notices  the  length  of  the  wings 
and  tail.  The  beak  is  nearly  "2  of  an  inch  shorter  in  proportion  to 
the  size  of  the  body  than  in  the  rock-pigeon;  but  the  internal  gape 
of  the  mouth  is  considerably  wider. 

Group  IV. 

The  birds  of  this  group  may  be  characterised  by  their 
resemblance  in  all  important  points  of  structure,  especially 
in  the  beak,  to  the  rock-pigeon.  The  Trumpeter  forms  the 
only  well  marked  race.  Of  the  numerous  other  sub-races  and 
varieties  I  shall  specify  only  a  few  of  the  most  distinct,  which 
I  have  myself  seen  and  kept  alive. 

Race   X. — Trumpeter.      ( Trommel tau be  ;    pigeon    tambour, 

glouglou.) 

A  tuft  of  feathers  at  the  base  of  the  heah  curling  forward  ;  feet 
much  feathered  ;  voice  very  peculiar ;  size  exceeding  that  of  the 
roch-pigeon. 

This  is  a  well-marked  breed,  with  a  peculiar  voice,  wholly  unlike 
that  of  any  other  pigeon.  The  coo  is  rapidly  repeated,  and  is  con- 
tinued for  several  minutes  ;  hence  their  name  of  Trumpeters.  They 
are  also  characterised  by  a  tuff  of  elongated  feathers,  which  curls 
forward  over  the  base  of  the  beak,  and  which  is  possessed  by  no 
other  breed.  Their  feet  are  so  heavily  feathered,  that  they  almost 
appear  like  little  wings.  They  are  larger  birds  than  the  rock- 
pigeon,  but  their  beak  is  of  very  nearly  the  same  proportional  size. 
Their  feet  are  rather  small.  This  breed  was  perfectly  characterised 
in  Moore's  time,  in  1735.  Mr.  Brent  says  that  two  varieties  exist, 
which  differ  in  size. 


^°  Neunieister, '  Taubenzucht,' Tab.       s.    26.     Bechstein,   '  Naturgeschichte 
4-.  fig.  i.  Deutschlands,'  Band  iv.  s.  36,  1795. 

"'  Riedel, '  Die  Taubenzucht,'  1824. 


Chap.  V.  DESCRIPTION   OF  BREEDS.  163 


Race  XI.  — Scarcely  differing  in  structure  from  the  wild 
Columbia  livia. 

Suh-race  I.  Laughers.  Size  less  than  the  Boch-pigeon  ;  voice  very 
peculiar. — As  this  bird  agrees  in  nearly  all  its  proportions  with  the 
rock-pigeon,  though  of  smaller  size,  I  should  not  have  thought  it 
woithy  of  mention,  had  it  not  been  for  its  peculiar  voice — a  character 
supposed  seldom  to  vary  with  birds.  Although  the  voice  of  the 
Ijaugher  is  very  different  from  that  of  the  Trumpeter,  yet  one  of  my 
Trumpeters  used  to  utter  a  single  note  like  that  of  the  Laugher.  I 
have  kept  two  varieties  of  Laughers,  which  differed  only  in  one 
variety,  being  turn-crowned ;  the  smooth-headed  kind,  for  which  I 
am  indebted  to  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Brent,  besides  its  peculiar  note, 
used  to  coo  in  a  singular  and  pleasing  manner,  which,  independently, 
struck  both  Mr.  Brent  and  myself  as  resembling  that  of  the  turtle- 
dove. Both  varieties  come  from  Arabia.  This  breed  was  known  by 
Moore  in  1735.  A  pigeon  which  seems  to  say  Yak-roo  is  mentioned 
in  1600  in  the  '  Ayeen  Akbery, '  and  is  probably  the  same  breed. 
Sir  W.  Elliot  has  also  sent  me  from  Madras  a  pigeon  called  Yahui, 
said  to  have  come  from  Mecca,  which  does  not  differ  in  appearance 
from  the  Laugher;  it  has  "a  deep  melancholy  voice,  like  Yahu, 
often  repeated."  Yahu,  yahu,  means  Oh  God,  oh  God;  and 
Sayzid  Mohammed  Musari,  in  the  treatise  written  about  100  years 
ago,  says  that  these  birds  "  are  not  flown,  because  they  repeat  the 
name  of  the  most  high  God."  Mr.  Keith  Abbott,  however,  informs 
me  that  the  common  pigeon  is  called  Yahoo  in  Persia. 

Sub-race  II.  Common  Frill-hack  (die  Strupptaube).  Beak  rather 
longer  than  in  the  rock-pigeon  ;  feathers  reversed. — This  is  a  consider- 
ably larger  bird  than  the  rock-pigeon,  and  with  the  beak,  propor- 
tionally with  the  size  of  body,  a  little  (viz.  by  '04  of  an  inch)  longer. 
The  feathers,  especially  on  the  wing-coverts,  have  their  points  curled 
upwards  or  back-wards. 

Suh-race  III.  Nuvs  (Pigeons  coquilles).  These  elegant  birds  are 
smaller  than  the  rock-pigeon.  The  beak  is  actually  1*7,  and  propor- 
tionally with  the  size  of  the  body  "1  of  an  inch  shorter  than  in  the 
rock-pigeons',  although  of  the  same  thickness.  In  young  birds  the 
scutellse  on  the  tarsi  and  toes  are  generally  of  a  leaden-black  colour ; 
and  this  is  a  remarkable  character  (though  observed  in  a  lesser 
degree  in  some  other  breeds),  as  the  colour  of  the  legs  in  the  adult 
state  is  subject  to  very  little  variation  in  any  breed.  I  have  on  two 
or  three  occasions  counted  thirteen  or  fourteen  feathers  in  the  tail ; 
tnis  likewise  occurs  in  the  barely  distinct  breed  called  Helmets. 
Nuns  are  symmetrically  coloured,  with  the  head,  primary  wing- 
feathers,  tail,  and  tail-coverts  of  the  same  colour,  namely,  black  or 
red,  and  with  the  rest  of  the  body  white.  This  breed  has  retained 
the  same  character  since  Aldrovandi  wrote  in  1600.  I  have  received 
from  Madras  almost  similarly  coloured  birds. 

Suh-race  IV.     Sj'ots  (die  Blasstauben;  pigeons  heurtes). — Thcec 


154:  DOMESTIC  PIGEONS:  Chap.  Y. 

birds  arc  a  very  little  larger  than  tlie  rock-pigeon,  with  the  beak  a 
trace  smaller  in  all  its  dimensions,  and  with  the  feet  decidedly 
smaller.  They  are  symmetrically  coloured,  with  a  spot  on  the 
forehead,  with  the  tail  and  tail-coverts  of  the  same  colour,  the  rest 
of  the  body  being  white.  This  breed  existed  in  1676  f^  and  in  1735 
Moore  remarks  that  they  breed  truly,  as  is  the  case  at  the  present  day. 
Sub-race  V.  Swallows. — These  birds,  as  measured  from  tip  to  tip 
of  wing,  or  from  the  end  of  the  beak  to  the  end  of  the  tail,  exceed 
in  size  the  rock-pigeon ;  but  their  bodies  are  much  less  bulky ; 
their  feet  and  legs  are  likewise  smaller.  The  beak  is  of  about  the 
same  length,  but  rather  slighter.  Altogether  their  general  appear- 
aDce  is  considerably  different  from  that  of  the  rock-pigeon.  Their 
heads  and  wings  are  of  the  same  colour,  the  rest  of  the  body  being 
white.  Their  flight  is  said  to  be  peculiar.  This  seems  to  be  a 
modern  breed,  which,  however,  originated  before  the  year  1795  in 
Germany,  for  it  is  described  by  Bechstein. 

Besides  the  several  breeds  now  described,  three  or  four  other  very 
distinct  kinds  existed  lately,  or  perhaps  still  exist,  in  Germany  and 
France.  Firstly,  the  Karmeliten,  or  carme  pigeon,  which  I  have 
not  seen ;  it  is  described  as  of  small  size,  with  very  short  legs,  and 
with  an  extremely  short  beak.  Secondly,  the  Finnikin,  which  is 
now  extinct  in  England.  It  had,  according  to  Moore's-^  treatise, 
published  in  1735,  a  tuft  of  feathers  on  the  hinder  part  of  the  head, 
which  ran  down  its  back  not  unlike  a  horses  mane.  "  When  it  is 
salacious  it  rises  over  the  hen  and  turns  round  three  or  four  times, 
flapping  its  wings,  then  reverses  and  turns  as  many  times  the  other 
way."  The  Turner,  on  the  other  hand,  when  it  "  plays  to  the 
female,  turns  only  one  way."  Whether  these  extraordinary  state- 
ments may  be  trusted  I  know  not ;  but  the  inheritance  of  any 
habit  may  be  believed,  after  what  we  have  seen  with  respect  to 
the  Ground-tumbler  of  India.  MM.  Boitard  and  Corbie  describe  a 
pigeon  ^^  which  has  the  singular  habit  of  sailing  for  a  considerable 
time  through  the  air,  without  flapping  its  wings,  like  a  bird  of  prey. 
The  confusion  is  inextricable,  from  the  time  of  Aldrovandi  in  1600 
to  the  present  day,  in  the  accounts  published  of  the  Draijers, 
Smiters,  Finnikins,  Turners,  Claquers,  &c.,  which  are  all  remark- 
able from  their  manner  of  flight.  Mr.  Brent  informs  me  that  he 
has  seen  one  of  these  breeds  in  Germany  with  its  wing-feathers 
injured  from  having  been  so  often  struck  together  but  he  did  not 
see  it  flying.  An  old  stuffed  specimen  of  a  Finnikin  in  the  British 
Museum  presents  no  well-marked  character.  Thirdly,  a  singular 
pigeon  with  a  forked  tail  is  mentioned  in  some  treatises ;  and  as 
Bechstein"  briefly  describes  and  figures  this  bird,  withatair'having 


22  Willughby's' Ornithology,' edit-  24  pjgeon    pattu    plongeur.     'Les 
ed  by  Hay!  Pigeons,'  &c.,  p.  165. 

23  J.  M.  Eaton's  edition  (1858)  of  25' NaturgescliichteDeutschlands,' 
Moore,  p.  98.  Band  iv.  s  47. 


Chap.  V.  DESCEIPTION  OF  BEEEDS.  165 

completely  the  structure  of  that  of  the  house-swallow,"  it  must  once 
have  existed,  for  Bechstein  was  far  too  good  a  naturalist  to  have 
confounded  any  distinct  species  with  the  domestic  pigeon.  Lastly, 
an  extraordinary  pigeon  imported  from  Belguim  has  lately  been 
exhibited  at  the  Philoperisteron  Society  in  London,^'^  which  "  con- 
joins the  colour  of  an  archangel  with  the  head  of  an  owl  or  barb, 
its  most  striking  peculiarity  being  the  extraordinary  length  of  the 
tail  and  wing-feathers,  the  latter  crossing  beyond  the  tail,  and  giving 
to  the  biid  the  appearance  of  a  gigantic  swift  (Cypselus),  or  long- 
winged  hawk."  Mr.  Tegetmeier  informs  me  that  this  bird  weighed 
only  10  ounces,  but  in  length  was  15^  inches  from  tip  to  beak 
to  end  of  tail,  and  32 1  inches  from  tip  to  tip  of  wing;  now  the 
wild  rock-pigeon  weighs  Ids  ounces,  and  measures  from  tip  to 
beak  to  end  of  tail  15  inches,  and  from  tip  to  tip  of  wing  only  261 
inches. 

I  have  now  described  all  the  domestic  pigeons  known  to 
me,  and  have  added  a  few  others  on  reliable  authority.  I 
have  classed  them  under  four  Groups,  in  order  to  mark  their 
affinities  and  degrees  of  difference ;  but  the  third  group  is 
artificial.  The  kinds  examined  by  me  form  eleven  races, 
which  include  several  sub-races ;  and  even  these  latter  present 
differences  that  would  certainly  have  been  thought  of  specific 
value  if  observed  in  a  state  of  nature.  The  sub-races  like- 
wise include  many  strictly  inherited  varieties ;  so  that 
altogether  there  must  exist,  as  previously  remarked,  above 
150  kinds  which  can  be  distinguished,  though  generally  by 
characters  of  extremely  slight  importance.  Many  of  the 
genera  of  the  Columbidee,  admitted  by  ornithologists,  do  not 
differ  in  any  great  degree  from  each  other;  taking  this  into 
consideration,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  several  of  the  most 
strongly  characterised  domestic  forms,  if  found  wild,  would 
have  been  placed  in  at  least  five  new  genera.  Thus  a  new 
genus  would  have  been  formed  for  the  reception  of  the 
improved  English  Pouter :  a  second  genus  for  Carriers  and 
Runts ;  and  this  would  have  been  a  wide  or  comprehensive 
genus,  for  it  would  have  admitted  common  Spanish  Eunts 
without  any  wattle,  short-beaked  Eunts  like  the  Tronfo,  and 
the  improved  English  Carrier :  a  third  genus  would  have 
been  formed  for  the  Barb :  a  fourth  for  the  Fantail :  and 
lastly,  a  fifth  for  the  short  beaked,  not-wattled  pigeons,  such 

88  Mr.  W.  B.  Tegetmeier,  'Journal  of  Horticulture,'  Jan.  20th,  1863,  p.  58, 


166  DOMESTIC  PIGEONS :  Chap.  V 

as  Turbits  and  short-faced  'Tumblers.  The  remaining  do- 
mestic forms  might  have  been  included,  in  the  same  genua 
with  the  wild  rock-pigeon. 

Individual  Variability  ;  variations  of  a  remarlidble  nature. 

The  differences  which  we  have  as  yet  considered  are  charach 
teristic  of  distinct  breeds;  but  there  are  other  differences, 
either  confined  to  individual  birds,  or  often  observed  in 
certain  breeds  but  not  characteristic  of  them.  These  indi- 
vidual differences  are  of  importance,  as  they  might  in  most 
cases  be  secured  and  accumulated  by  man's  power  of  selection 
and  thus  an  existing  breed  might  be  greatly  modified  or  a 
new  one  formed.  Fanciers  notice  and  select  only  those  slight 
differences  which  are  externally  visible;  but  the  whole 
organisation  is  so  tied  together  by  correlation  of  growth, 
that  a  change  in  one  part  is  frequently  accompanied  by  other 
changes.  For  our  purpose,  modifications  of  all  kinds  are 
equall}''  important,  and  if  affecting  a  part  which  does  not 
commonly  vary,  are  of  more  importance  than  a  modification 
in  some  conspicuous  part.  At  the  present  day  any  visible 
deviation  of  character  in  a  well-established  breed  is  rejected 
as  a  blemish;  but  it  by  no  means  follows  that  at  an  early 
period,  before  well-marked  breeds  had  been  formed,  such 
deviations  would  have  been  rejected;  on  the  contrary,  they 
would  have  been  eagerly  preserved  as  presenting  a  novelty, 
and  would  then  have  been  slowly  augmented,  as  we  shall  here- 
after more  clearly  see,  by  the  process  of  unconscious  selection. 

I  have  made  numerous  measurements  of  the  various  parts  of  the 
body  in  the  several  breeds,  and  have  hardly  ever  found  them  quite 
the  same  in  birds  of  the  same  breed, — the  differences  being  greater 
than  we  commonly  meet  with  in  wild  species  within  the  same 
district.  To  begin  with  the  primary  feathers  of  the  wing  and  tail ; 
but  I  must  first  mention,  as  some  readers  may  not  be  aware  of  the 
fact,  that  the  number  of  the  primary  wing  and  tail-feathers  in  wild 
birds  is  generally  constant,  and  characterises,  not  only  whole  genera, 
but  even  whole  families.  When  the  tail-feathers  are  unusually 
numerous,  as  for  instance  in  the  swan,  they  are  apt  to  be  variable 
in  number ;  but  this  does  not  apply  to  the  several  species  and  genera 
of  the  Columbidge,  which  never  (as  far  as  I  can  hear)  have  less  than 
twelve  or  more  than  sixteen  tail-feathers ;  and  these  numbers  cha- 


Chap.  V  INDIVIDUAL   VAKI ABILITY.  107 

racterise,  "with  rare  exception,  whole  sub-families.^  The  wild  rock- 
pigeon  has  twelve  tail-feathers.  With  FantaiJs,  as  we  have  seen, 
the  number  varies  from  fourteen  to  forty-two.  In  two  young  birds 
in  the  same  nest  I  counted  twenty-two  and  twenty-seven  feathers. 
Pouters  are  very  liable  to  have  additional  tail-feathers,  and  I  have 
seen  on  several  occasions  fourteen  or  fifteen  in  my  own  birds.  Mr. 
Bult  had  a  specimen,  examined  by  Mr.  Yarrell,  with  seventeen  tail- 
feathers.  I  had  a  Nun  with  thirteen,  and  another  with  fourteen 
tail-feathers  ;  and  in  a  Helmet,  a  breed  barely  distinguishable  from 
the  Nun,  I  have  counted  fifteen,  and  have  heard  of  other  such 
instances.  On  the  other  hand,  Mr.  Brent  possessed  a  Dragon,  which 
during  its  whole  life  never  had  more  than  ten  tail-feathers ;  and  one 
of  my  Dragons,  descended  from  Mr.  Brent's,  had  only  eleven.  I 
have  seen  a  Bald-head  Tumbler  with  only  ten;  and  Mr.  Brent 
had  an  Air  -  Tumbler  with  the  same  number,  but  another  with 
fourteen  tail-feathers.  Two  of  these  latter  Tumblers,  bred  by  Mr, 
Brent,  were  remarkable, — one  from  having  the  two  central  tail- 
feathers  a  little  divergent,  and  the  other  from  having  the  two  outer 
feathers  longer  by  three-eighths  of  an  inch  than  the  others  ;  so  that 
in  both  cases  the  tail  exhibited  a  tendency,  but  in  different  ways,  to 
become  forked.  And  this  shows  us  how  a  swallow-tailed  breed, 
like  that  described  by  Bechstein,  might  have  been  formed  by  careful 
selection. 

With  respect  to  the  primary  wing-feathers,  the  number  in  the 
Columbidse,  as  far  as  I  can  find  out,  is  always  nine  or  ten.  In  the 
rock-pigeon  it  is  ten ;  but  I  have  seen  no  less  than  eight  short-faced 
Tumblers  with  only  nine  primaries,  and  the  occurrence  of  this 
number  has  been  noticed  by  fanciers,  owing  to  ten  primaries  of 
a  white  colour  being  one  of  the  points  in  Short-faced  Baldhead- 
Tumblers.  Mr.  Brent,  however,  had  an  Air-Tumbler  (not  short- 
faced)  which  had  in  both  wings  eleven  primaries.  Mr.  Corker,  the 
eminent  breeder  of  prize  Carriers,  assures  me  that  some  of  his  birds 
had  eleven  primaries  in  both  wings.  I  have  seen  eleven  in  one 
wing  in  two  Pouters.  I  have  been  assured  by  three  fanciers  that 
they  have  seen  twelve  in  Scanderoons ;  but  as  Neumeister  asserts 
that  in  the  allied  Florence  Eunt  the  middle  flight-feather  is  often 
double,  the  number  twelve  may  have  been  caused  by  tvw  of  the  ten 
primaries  having  each  two  shafts  to  a  single  feather.  The  secondary 
wing-feathers  are  difficult  to  count,  but  the  number  seems  to  vary 
from  twelve  to  fifteen.  The  length  of  the  wing  and  tail  relatively- 
to  the  body,  and  of  the  wings  to  the  tail,  certainly  varies ;  I  have 
especially  noticed  this  in  Jacobins.    In  ]\Ir.  Bult's  magnificent  col- 


'^  '  Coup-d'ceil  sur  I'Ordre  des  Pi-  Ectopistes,  which  are  nearly  allied  tc 

geons,'par  C.  L.  Bonaparte  (' Coraptes  each  ether,  one  should  have  fourteen 

Rendus'),    1854—55.     Mr.    Blyth,   in  tail-feathers,    while    the    other,    the 

'Annals  of  Nat.  Hist.,' vol.  xix.,  1847,  passenger  pigeon  of  North  America, 

p.   41,  mentions,  as   a  very  singular  should  possess  but  the  usual  numbei 

fact,   "  that   of  the   two   species    of  — twelve." 


168  DOMESTIC  PIGEONS  :  Chap.  V. 

lection  of  Pouters,  the  wings  and  tail  varied  greatly  in  leni^'tli ;  and 
were  sometimes  so  much  elongated  that  the  birds  could  hardly  play 
upright.  In  the  relative  length  of  the  few  first  primaries  I  havo 
observed  only  a  slight  degree  of  variability.  Mr.  Brent  informs  me 
that  he  has  observed  the  shape  of  the  first  feather  to  vary  very 
slightly.  But  the  variation  in  these  latter  points  is  extremely  slight 
compared  with  the  diff'erences  which  may  be  observed  in  the  natural 
species  of  the  Columbidae. 

In  the  beak  I  have  seen  very  considerable  differences  in  birds  of 
the  same  breed,  as  in  carefully  bred  Jacobins  and  Trumpeters.  In 
Carriers  there  Is  often  a  conspicuous  difference  in  the  degree  of 
attenuation  and  curvature  of  the  beak.  So  it  is  indeed  in  many 
breeds:  thus  I  had  two  strains  of  black  Barbs,  which  evidently 
differed  in  the  curvature  of  the  upper  m.andible.  In  width  of  mouth 
I  have  found  a  great  difference  in  two  Swallows.  In  Fautails  of 
first-rate  merit  I  have  seen  some  birds  with  much  longer  and  thinner 
necks  than  in  others.  Other  analogous  facts  could  be  given.  We 
have  seen  that  the  oil-gland  is  aborted  in  all  Fantails  (with  the 
exception  of  the  sub-race  from  Java),  and,  I  may  add,  so  hereditary 
is  this  tendency  to  abortion,  that  some,  although  not  all,  of  the 
mongrels  which  I  reared  from  the  Faintail  and  Pouter  had  no  oil- 
gland  ;  in  one  Swallow  out  of  many  which  I  have  examined,  and  in 
two  Nuns,  there  was  no  oil-gland. 

The  number  of  the  scute  lias  on  the  toes  often  varies  in  the  same 
breed,  and  sometimes  even  differs  on  the  two  feet  of  the  same  indi- 
vidual ;  the  Shetland  rock-pigeon  has  fifteen  on  the  middle,  and  six 
on  the  hinder  toe;  whereas  1  have  seen  a  Punt  with  sixteen  on  the 
middle  and  eight  on  the  hind  toe  ;  and  a  short-faced  Tumbler  with 
only  twelve  and  five  on  these  same  toes.  The  rock-pigeon  has  no 
sensible  amount  of  skin  between  its  toes ;  but  I  possessed  a  Spot 
and  a  Nun  with  the  skin  extending  for  a  space  of  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  from  the  fork,  between  the  two  inner  toes.  On  the  other  hand, 
as  will  hereafter  be  more  fully  shown,  pigeons  with  feathered  feet 
very  generally  have  the  bases  of  their  outer  toes  connected  by  skin. 
I  had  a  red  Tumbler,  which  had  a  coo  unlike  that  of  its  fellows, 
approaching  in  tone  to  that  of  the  Laugher :  this  bird  had  the  habit, 
to  a  degree  which  I  never  saw  equalled  in  any  other  pigeon,  of  often 
walking  with  its  wings  raised  and  arched  in  an  elegant  manner.  I 
need  say  nothing  on  the  great  variability,  in  almost  every  breed,  in 
size  of  body,  in  colour,  in  the  feathering  of  the  feet,  and  in  the 
feathers  on  the  back  of  the  head  being  reversed.  But  I  may  mention 
a  remarkable  Tumbler  ^^  exhibited  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  which  had 
an  irregular  crest  of  feathers  on  its  head,  somewhat  like  the  tuft  on 
the  head  of  the  Polish  fowl.  Mr.  Bult  reared  a  hen  Jacobin  with 
the  feathers  on  the  thigh  so  long  as  to  reach  the  ground,  and  a  cock 
having,  but  in  a  lesi^er  degree,  the  same  peculiarity ;  from  these  two 
birds  he  bred  others  similarly  characterised,  which  were  exhibited 


28  Describeii  and  figured  in  the  'Poultry  Chronicle,'  vol.  iii.,  1855,  p.  8^. 


CHA.P.  V.  SINGULAR   VARIATIONS.  169 

at  the  Philoperisteron  Soc.  I  bred  a  mongrel  pigeon  which  had 
fibrous  feathers,  and  the  wing  and  tail-feathers  so  short  and  imper- 
fect that  ttie  bird  could  not  fly  even  a  foot  in  height. 

There  are  many  singular  and  inherited  peculiarities  in  the 
plumage  of  pigeons :  thus  Almond-Tumblers  do  not  acquire 
their  perfect  mottled  feathers  until  they  have  moulted  three 
or  four  times :  the  Kite  Tumbler  is  at  first  brindled  black 
and  red  with  a  barred  ajDpearance,  but  when  "  it  throws  its 
nest  feathers  it  becomes  almost  black,  generally  with  a  bluish 
tail,  and  a  reddish  colour  on  the  inner  webs  of  the  primary 
wing-feathers."^^  Neumeister  describes  a  breed  of  a  black 
colour  with  white  bars  on  the  wing  and  a  white  crescent- 
shaped  mark  on  the  breast ;  these  marks  are  generally  rusty- 
red  before  the  first  moult,  but  after  the  third  or  fourth  moult 
they  undergo  a  change ;  the  wing- feathers  and  the  crown  of 
the  head  likewise  then  become  white  or  gre}^.^" 

It  is  an  important  fact,  and  I  believe  there  is  hardly  an 
exception  to  the  rule,  that  the  especial  characters  for  which 
each  breed  is  valued  are  eminently  variable :  thus,  in  the 
Fantail,  the  number  and  direction  of  the  tail-feathers,  the 
carriage  of  the  body,  and  the  degree  of  trembling  are  all 
highly  variable  points ;  in  Pouters,  the  degree  to  which  they 
pout,  and  the  shape  of  their  inflated  crops;  in  the  Carrier, 
the  length,  narrowness,  and  curvature  of  the  beak,  and  the 
amount  of  v/attle ;  in  Short-faced  Tumblers,  the  shortness  of 
the  beak,  the  prominence  of  the  forehead,  and  general 
carriage,^^  and  in  the  Almond-Tumbler  the  colour  of  the 
plumage ;  in  common  Tumblers,  the  manner  of  tumbling  ; 
in  the  Barb,  the  breadth  and  shortness  of  the  beak  and  the 
amount  of  eye- wattle  ;  in  liunts,  the  size  of  body;  in  Turbits 
the  frill ;  and  lastly  in  Trumpeters,  the  cooing,  as  well  as 
the  size  of  the  tuft  of  feathers  over  the  nostrils.  These, 
which  are  the  distinctive  and  selected  characters  of  the  several 
breeds,  are  all  eminently  variable. 

There    is    another   interesting   fact   with   respect   to   the 

23  '  The  Pigeon  Book,'  by  Mr.  B.  P.  ^^  '  A  Treatise  on  the  Almond -Turn. 

Brent,  1859,  p.  41.  bier,  by  J.   M.  Eaton,  1852,  p.  8,  ct 

^"  *  Die  ctaarhalsige  Tanbe.      Das  passim. 
G&n/e,  &c.,'  8,  21,  tab,  i.  tig.  4. 


170  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS  I  Chap.  V 

characters  of  the  several  breeds,  namel}^,  that  they  are  often 
most  strongly  displayed  in  the  male  bird.  In  Carriers,  when 
the  males  and  females  are  exhibited  in  separate  pens,  the 
wattle  is  plainly  seen  to  be  much  more  developed  in  the 
males,  though  I  have  seen  a  hen  Carrier  belonging  to  Mr. 
Haynes  heavily  wattled.  Mr.  Tegetmeier  informs  me  that, 
in  twenty  Barbs  in  Mr.  P.  H.  Jones's  possession,  the  males 
had  generally  the  largest  eye- wattles;  Mr.  Esquilant  also 
believes  in  this  rule,  but  Mr.  H.  Weir,  a  first-rate  judge, 
entertains  some  doubt  on  the  subject.  Male  Pouters  distend 
their  crops  to  a  much  greater  size  than  do  the  females ;  I 
have,  however,  seen  a  hen  in  the  possession  of  Mr.  Evans 
which  pouted  excellently ;  but  this  is  an  unusual  circumstance. 
Mr.  Harrison  Weir,  a  successful  breeder  of  prize  Fantails, 
informs  me  that  his  male  birds  often  have  a  greater  number 
of  tail-feathers  than  the  females.  Mr.  Eaton  asserts  ^^  that 
if  a  cock  and  hen  Tumbler  were  of  equal  merit,  the  hen  would 
be  worth  double  the  money ;  and  as  pigeons  always  pair,  so 
that  an  equal  number  of  both  sexes  is  necessary  for  repro- 
duction, this  seems  to  show  that  high  merit  is  rarer  in  thd 
female  than  in  the  male.  In  the  development  of  the  frill  in 
Turbits,  of  the  hood  in  Jacobins,  of  the  tuft  in  Trumpeters, 
of  tumbling  in  Tumblers,  there  is  no  difference  between  the 
males  and  females.  I  may  here  add  a  rather  different  case, 
namely,  the  existence  in  France  ^^  of  a  wine-coloured  variety 
of  the  Pouter,  in  which  the  male  is  generally  chequered  with 
black,  whilst  the  female  is  never  so  chequered.  Dr.  Chapuis 
also  remarks^*  that  in  certain  light-coloured  pigeons  the 
males  have  their  feathers  striated  with  black,  and  these  strict 
increase  in  size  at  each  mcmlt,  so  that  the  male  ultimately 
becomes  spotted  with  black.     With  Carriers,  the  wattle,  both 

32  A  Treatise,  &c.,  p.  10.  generally    females,    and   of  the   ease 

33  Boitard  and  Corbie', '  Les  Pigeons,'  with  which  a  race  thus  characterised 
&c.,  1824,  p.  173.  could    be    produced.       Bonizzi    (see 

34  <  Le  Pigeon  Voyageur  Beige,*  *  Variazioni  dei  Columbi  domestic! :' 
1865,  p.  87.  I  have  given  m  my  Padova,  1873)  states  that  certain 
'  Descent  of  Man '  (6th  edit.  p.  466)  coloured  spots  are  often  different  in 
some  curious  cases,  on  the  authority  the  two  sexes,  and  the  certain  tints 
of  Mr.  Tegetmeier,  of  silver-coloured  are  commoner  in  females  than  in  male 
(j.  e.   very    pale    blue)    birds    being  pigeons. 


Chap.  V.  OSTEOLOGTAL   DIFFEEENCES.  171 

on  the  beak  and  round  the  eyes,  and  with  Ba.rbs  Jiat  n)nnd 
the  eyes,  goes  on  increasing  with  age.  This  augmentation 
of  character  with  advancing  age,  and  more  especiall}'-  tho 
difference  between  the  males  and  females  in  the  above- 
mentioned  several  resjDects,  are  remarkable  facts,  for  there 
is  no  sensible  difference  at  any  age  between  the  two  Bexc«i 
in  the  aboriginal  rock-pigeon  ;  and  not  often  any  strongly 
marked  difference  throughout  the  family  of  the  Columbidte.^^ 

Osteological  Characters. 

In  the  skeletons  of  the  various  breeds  there  is  much  varia- 
bility ;  and  though  certain  differences  occur  frequently,  and 
others  rarely,  in  certain  breeds,  yet  none  can  be  said  to  be 
absolutely  characteristic  of  any  breed.  Considering  that 
strongly-marked  domestic  races  have  been  formed  chiefly  by 
man's  selection,  we  ought  not  to  expect  to  find  great  and 
constant  differences  in  the  skeleton  ;  for  fanciers  neither  see, 
nor  do  they  care  for,  modifications  of  structure  in  the  internal 
framework.  Nor  ought  we  to  expect  changes  in  the  skeletons 
from  changed  habits  of  life ;  as  every  facility  is  given  to  the 
most  distinct  breeds  to  follow  the  same  habits,  and  the  much 
modified  races  are  never  allowed  to  wander  abroad  and 
procure  their  own  food  in  various  ways.  Moreover,  I  find, 
on  comparing  the  skeletons  of  Columba  livia,  oenas,  palumhus, 
and  turtur,  which  are  ranked  by  all  systematists  in  two  or 
three  distinct  though  allied  genera,  that  the  differences  are 
extremely  slight,  certainly  less  than  between  the  skeletons 
of  some  of  the  most  distinct  domestic  breeds.  How  far  the 
skeleton  of  the  wild  rock-pigeon  is  constant  I  have  had  no 
means  of  judging,  as  I  have  examined  only  two. 

SkuIL— The  individual  bones,  especially  those  at  the  base,  do  not 
differ  in  shape.  But  the  whole  skull,  in  its  proportions,  outline, 
and  relative  direction  of  the  bones,  differs  greatly  iu  some  of  the 
breeds,  as  may  be  seen  by  comparing  the  figures  of  (a)  the  wild 


*^  Prof.  A.  Fewtou  (*  Proc.  Zoolog.  family  of  the  Treronidae  the  sexes  often 

Soc.,'   1865,  p.  716)  remarks  that  he  differ    considerably   in    colour.      See 

knows  no  species  which  present  any  also  on  sexual  differences  in  the  Colura- 

remarkable  sexual  distinction  ;  butMr.  bidae,  Gould,  'Handbook  to  the  Birds 

Wallace  inform*  mp,  that  in  the  sub-  of  Australia,'  vol.  ii.  pp.  109-li&. 


172 


DOMESTIC   PIGEONS  : 


Chap.  V. 


rock-pigeon,  (b)  the  Short-faced  Tumbler,  (c)  the  English  Carrier, 
and  (d)  the  Bagadotten  Carrier  (of  Neumeister),  all  drawn  of  the 
natural  size  and  viewed  laterally.     In  the  Carrier,  besides  the  elon- 


Fig.  24. — Skulls  of  Pigeons  viewed  laterally,  of  natural  size.    A.  Wild  Kock-pigeoii,  Coluniba 
lioia.     B.  Short-faced  Tumbler,    C.  English  Carrier.     D.  liagadottea  Carrier. 

gation  of  the  bones  of  the  face,  the  space  between  the  orbits  is  pro- 
portionally a  little  narrower  than  in  the  rock-pigeon.  In  the  Baga- 
dotten the  upper  mandible  is  remarkably  arched,  and  the  premaxil- 
lary  bones  are  proportionally  broader     In  the  Short-faced  Tumbler 


Chap.  V. 


OSTEOLOGICAL    D1FFEEE>7CES. 


173 


the  skull  IS  more  globular :  all  the  bones  of  the  face  are  much 
shortened,  and  the  front  of  the  skull  and  descending  nasal  bones  are 
almost  perpendicular :  the  maxillo-jugal  arch  and  premaxillary 
bones  form  an  -almost  straight  line;  ttie  space  between  the  pro- 
minent edges  of  the  eye-orbits  is  depressed.  In  the  Barb  the  pre- 
maxillary bones  are  much  shortened,  and  their  anterior  portion  is 
thicker  than  in  the  rock-pigeon,  as  is  the  lower  part  of  the  nasal 
bone.  In  two  Nuns  the  ascending  branches  of  the  ]iremaxillaries, 
near  their  tips,  were  somewhat  attenuated,  and  in  these  birds,  as 
well  as  in  some  others,  for  instance  in  the  Spot,  the  occipital  crest 
over  the  foramen  was  considerably  more  prominent  than  in  the 
rock-pigeon. 

In  the  lower  jaw,  the  articular  surface  is  proper tionably  smaller 
in  many  breeds  than  in  the  rock-pigeon ;  and  the  vertical  diameter. 


Fig.  25. — Lower  Jaws,  seen  from  above,  ot  natural  size. 

C.  Barb. 


A.  Rock-pigeon.    B.  Runt, 


more  especially  of  the  outer  part  of  the  articular  surface,  is  con- 
siderably shorter.  May  not  this  be  accounted  for  by  the  lessened 
use  of  the  jaws,  owing  to  nutiitious  food  having  been  given  during 
a  long  period  to  all  highly  improved  pigeons  ?  In  Eunts,  Carriers, 
and  Barbs  (and  in  a  lesser  degree  in  several  breeds),  the  whole  side 
of  the  jaw  near  the  articular  end  is  bent  inwards  in  a  highly  re- 
markable manner ;  and  the  superior  margin  of  the  ramus,  beyond 
the  middle,  is  reflexed  in  an  equally  remarkable  manner,  as  may  be 
seen  in  the  accompanying  figures,  in  comparison  with  the  jaw  of 
the  rock-pigeon.  This  reflection  of  the  upper  margin  of  the  lower 
jaw  is  plainly  connected  with  the  singularly  wide  gape  of  the 
mouth,  as  has  been  described  in  Eants,  Carriers,  and  Barbs.  The 
reflection  is  w^ell  shown  in  fig.  20  of  the  head  of  a  Eunt  seen  from 
above;  here  a  wide  open  space  may  be  observed  on  each  side, 
between  the  edges  of  the  lower  jaw  and  of  the  premaxillary  bones. 


174 


DOMESTIC   PIGEONS: 


Chap.  V. 


In  the  rock-pigeon,  and  in  several  domestic  breeds,  the  edges  of  the 
lower  jaw  on  each  side  come  close  up  to  the  premaxillary  bones,  so 


Fig.  27. — Lateral  view  of  jaws,  of  natural  size. 
A.  Rock-pigeon.  B.  Short-faced  Tumbler.  0. 
Bagadolten  Carrier. 

.  that  no  open  space  is  left.  The  degree  of 
downward  curvature  of  the  distal  half  of 
the  lower  jaw  also  differs  to  an  extra- 
ordinary degree  in  some  breeds,  as  may  be 
seen  in  the  drawings  (fig.  a)  of  the  rock- 
Fig.  26.-s:cuii  or  Runt  seen    pi^eou,   (b)   of  the    Short-faced  Tumbler, 

from  above,  ot  natural  size,     -^      i   .    n    V  j-i       -o  i    ^j.         /-i        •  £•   -vt 

showing  the  reflexed  margin    and  (c)  of  the  Bagadotteu  Carrier  of  Neu- 

of  the  distal  portion  of  the    meister.     In  some  Runts  the  s\mphysis  of 

lower  jaw.  ^^^  lower  jaw  is  remarkably  solid,     is'o  One 

would  readily    have    believed   that  jaw^s  differing  in   the  several 

above-specified  points  so  greatly  could  have  belonged  to  the  same 

species. 

Vertebrce.—All  the  breeds  have  twelve  cervical  vertebrae.  ^^  But 
in  a  Bussorah  Carrier  from  India  the  twelfth  vertebra  carried  a 
small  rib,  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length,  with  a  perfect  double 
articulation. 

The  dorsal  vertehxE  are  always  eight.  In  the  rock-pigeon  all 
eight  bear  ribs;  the  eight  rib  being  very  thin,  and  the  seventh 
having  no  process.  In  Pouters  all  the  ribs  are  extremely  broad, 
eight  bear  ribs;  the  eighth  rib  being  very  thin  and  the  seventh 
having  no  process.  In  Pouters  all  the  rilDS  are  extremely  broad, 
and,  in  three  out  of  four  skeletons  examined  by  me,  the  eighth  rib 
was  twice  or  even  thrice  as  broad  as  in  the  rock- pigeon ;   and  the 


3^  I  am  not  sure   that   I  havede-  ferent  rules,  and,  as  I  use  the  same 

signated  the  different  kinds  of  vertebrae  terms   in    the  comparison  of  all  the 

correctly :  but  I  observe  that  different  skeletons,    this,    I    hope,    will     not 

anatomists  follow  m  this   respect  dif-  signify. 


Chap.  V. 


OSTEOLOGICA.L   DIFFERENCES. 


175 


seventh  pair  had  distinct  processes.  In  many  breeds  there  are 
only  seven  ribs,  as  in  seven  out  of  eight  skeletons  of  various 
Tumblers,  and  in  several  skeletons  of  Fantails,  Turbits  and  Nuns. 

In  all  these  breeds  the  seventh  pair  was  very  small,  and  was 
destitute  of  processes,  in  which  respect  it  differed  from  the  same 
rib  in  the  rock-pigeon.  In  one  Tumbler,  and  in  the  Bussorah 
Carrier,  even  the  sixth  pair  had  no  process.  The  hyi^apophysis  of 
the  second  dorsal  vertebra  varies  much  in  development ;  being 
sometimes  (as  in  several,  but  not  all  Tumblers)  nearly  as  prominent 
as  that  of  the  third  dorsal  vertebra ;  and  the  two  hypapophyses 
together  tend  to  form  an  ossified  arch.  The  development  of  the 
arch,  formed  by  the  hypapophyses  of  the  third  and  fourth  dorsal 
vertebrae,  also  varies  considerably,  as  does  the  size  of  the  hypapo- 
physis  of  the  fifth  vertebra. 

The  rock-pigeon  has  twelve  sacral  vertehrce ;  but  these  vary  in 
number,  relative  size,  and  distinctness,  in  the  different  breeds.  In 
Pouters,  with  their  elongated  bodies,  there  are  thirteen  or  even 
fourteen,  and,  as  we  shall  immediately  see,  an  additional  number 
of  caudal  vertebrae.  In  Eunts  and  Carriers  there  is  generally  the 
proper  number,  namely  twelve ;  but  in  one  Eunt,  and  in  the  Bussorah 
Carrier,  there  were  only  eleven.  In  Tumblers  there  are  either  eleven, 
or  twelve,  or  thirteen  sacral  vertebrae. 

The  caudal  vertehrce  are  seven  in  number  in  the  rock-pigeon.  In 
Fantails,  which  have  their  tails  so  largely  developed,  there  are 
eight  or  nine,  and  apparently  in  one  case  ten,  and  they  are  a  little 
longer  than  in  the  rock-pigeon,  and  their  shape  varies  considerably. 
Pouters,  also,  have  eight  or  nine  caudal  vertebrae.  I  have  seen  eight 
in  a  Nun  and  Jacobin.  Tumblers,  though  such  small  birds,  alwa\  s 
have  the  normal  number  seven ;  as  have  Carriers,  with  one  exception, 
in  which  there  were  only  six. 

The  following  table  will  serve  as  a  summary,  and  will  show  the 
most  remarkable  deviations  in  the  number  of  the  vertebrae  and  ribs 
which  I  have  observed : — • 


Rock  Pigeon. 

Pouter,  from 
Mr.  Bult. 

Tumbler, 
Dutch  Roller. 

Bussorah 
Carrier. 

Cervical  Veiiebrse 

12 

12 

12 

12 

The  12  th  bore 
a  small  rib. 

Dorsal  Vertebrae 

8 

8 

8 

8 

„       Kibs 

8 

8 

7 

7. 

The  6th  Pair  with 

The  6th  and 

The  6th  and 

The  6th  and 

processes,  the  7th 

7th  pair  with 

7th  pair  with- 

7th pair  with- 

pair without  a 

processes. 

out  processes. 

out  processes. 

process. 

Sacral  Vertebrae 

J2 

14 

11 

11 

Caudal  Vertebrae 
Total  VertebisB 

7 

8  or  9 

7 

7 

39 

42  or  43 

38 

86: 

176 


DOMESTIC   PIGEONS 


Chap.  V. 


Fig.  28.— Scapute,  of  natural, 
size.  A.  Rock-pigeon.  B. 
Short-faced  Tumbler. 


The  pelvh  differs  very  little  in  any  breed.    The  anterior  margin 
of  the  iliuni,  however^  is  sometimes  a  little  more  equally  rounded 

on  both    sides    than 

in  the   rock-pigeor. 

The  ischium   is  also 

frequently        rather 

more  elongated.  The 

obturator-notch      is 

sometimes^      as     in 

many  Tumblers,  less 

developed     than    in 

the  rock-pigeon.  The 

ridges  on  the  ilium 

are  very   prominent 

in  most  Eunts. 
In  the  bones  of  the 

extremities    I  could 

detect  no  difference, 

except  in  their  pro- 
portional     lengths ; 

for     instance,     the 

metatarsus  in  a 
Pouter  was  1'65  inch,  and  in  a  Short-faced 
Tumbler  only  '95  in  length;  and  this  is  a 
greater  difference  than  would  naturally  follow 
from  their  differently-sized  bodies ;  but  long 
legs  in  the  Pouter,  and  small  feet  in  the 
Tumbler,  are  selected  points  In  some 
Pouters  the  scapula  is  rather  straighter,  and 
in  some  Tumblers  it  is  straighter,  with  the 
apex  less  elongated,  than  in  the  rock-pigeon : 
in  the  woodcut,  iig.  28,  the  scapulae  of  the 
rock-pigeon  (a),  and  of  a  short-faced  Tumbler 
(b),  are  given.  The  processes  at  the  summit 
of  the  coracoid,  which  receive  the  extremities 
of  the  furculum,  form  a  more  perfect  cavity  in 
some  Tumblers  than  in  the  rock-pigeon :  in 
Pouters  these  processes  are  larger  and  dif- 
ferently shaped,  and  the  exterior  angle  of 
the  extremity  of  the  coracoid,  which  is 
articulated  to  the  sternum,  is  squarer. 

The  two  arms  of  the  furculum  in  Pouters 
diverge  less,  proportionally  to  their  length, 
than  in  the  rock-pigeon  ;  and  the  symphysis 
is  more  solid  and  pointed.  In  Fantails  the 
desree  of  divergence  of  the  two  arms  varies  Fig- 29.--^uTcaia,  of  natural 

•,  '  111  T     r-        nn  i        Size.  A.  Short-faceii  I  uai- 

m  a  remarkable  manner.     In  fig.  29,  b  and      bier,   b  and  c  Fantaii.  d. 

c  represent  the  furciila  of  two  Fantails  ;  and     Pouter. 

it  will  bo  seen  that  the  divergence  in  b  is  rather  less  even  than  in  the 


Chap.  V.  CORRELATION   OF   GROWTH.  177 

furculum  of  the  short-faced,  small-sized  Tumbler  (a),  whereas  the, 
divergence  in  c  equals  that  in  a  rock-pigeon,  or  in  1he  Pouter  (d), 
though  the  latter  is  a  much  larger  bird.  The  extremities  of  the  furcu- 
lum, where  articulated  to  the  coracoids,  vary  considerably  in  outline. 
In  the  sternum  the  differences  in  form  are  slight,  except  in  the 
size  and  outline  of  the  perforations,  which,  both  in  the  larger  and 
lesser  sized  breeds,  are  sometimes  small.  These  perforations,  also, 
are  sometimes  either  nearly  circular,  or  elongated  as  is  often  the 
case  with  Carriers.  The  posterior  perforatioDs  occasionally  are  not 
complete,  being  left  open  posteriorly.  The  marginal  apophyses 
IbrmJng  the  anterior  perforations  vary  greatly  in  developmeiit. 
The  degree  of  convexity  of  the  posterior  part  of  the  sternum  diifers 
much,  being  sometimes  almost  perfectly  flat.  The  manubrium  is 
rather  more  prominent  in  some  individuals  than  in  others,  and  the 
pore  immediately  under  it  varies  greatly  in  size. 

Correlation  of  Groivth. — By  this  term  I  mean  that  the  whole 
organisation  is  so  connected,  that  when  one  part  varies,  other 
parts  vary ;  but  which  of  two  correlated  variations  ought  to  be 
looked  at  as  the  cause  and  which  as  the  eifect,  or  whether  both 
result  from  some  common  cause,  we  can  seldom  or  never  tell. 
The  point  of  interest  for  us  is  that,  when  fanciers,  by  the  con- 
tinued selection  of  slight  variations,  have  largely  modified  one 
part,  they  often  unintentionally  produce  other  modifications. 
For  instance,  the  beak  is  readily  acted  on  by  selection,  and, 
with  its  increased  or  diminished  length,  the  tongue  increases 
or  diminishes,  but  not  in  due  proportion ;  for,  in  a  F^arb  and 
Short-faced  Tumbler,  both  of  which  have  very  short  beaks,  the 
tongue,  taking  the  rock -pigeon  as  the  standard  of  comparison, 
was  proportionally  not  shortened  enough,  whilst  in  two 
Carriers  and  in  a  Eunt  the  tongue,  proportionally  with  the 
beak,  was  not  lengthened  enough,  thus,  in  a  firist-rate  English 
(Jarrier,  in  which  the  beak  from  the  tip  to  the  feathered  base 
was  exactly  thrice  as  long  as  in  a  first-rate  Short-faced 
Tumbler,  the  tongue  was  only  a  little  more  than  twice  as 
long.  But  the  tongue  varies  in  length  independently  of  the 
beak  :  thus  in  a  Carrier  with  a  beak  1*2  inch  in  length,  the 
tongue  was  '67  in  length  :  whilst  in  a  Runt  which  equalled 
the  Carrier  in  length  of  body  and  in  stretch  of  Avings  from 
tip  to  tip,  the  beak  was  '92  whilst  the  tongue  was  '73  of  an 
inch  in  length,  so  that  the  tongue  was  actually  longer  than 
in  the  carrier  with  its  long  beak.  The  tongue  of  the  Eunt 
was  also  very  broad  at  the  root.     Of  two  Eunts,  one  had  its 

13 


178  DOMESTIC   pigeons:  Chap.  V 

beak  longer  by  -23  of  an  incli,  whilst  its  tongue  was  shorter 
by  •14  than  in  the  other. 

With  the  increased  or  diminished  length  of  the  beak  tho 
length  of  the  slit  forming  the  external  orifice  of  the  nostrils 
varies,  but  not  in  due  proportion,  for,  taldng  the  rock-pigeon 
as  the  standard,  the  orifice  in  a  Short-faced  Tumbler  was  not 
shortened  in  due  proportion  with  its  very  short  beak.  On 
the  other  hand  (and  this  could  not  have  been  anticipated), 
the  orifice  in  three  English  Carriers,  in  the  Bagadotten 
Carrier,  and  in  a  Runt  (jngeon  cygne),  was  longer  by  above 
the  tenth  of  an  inch  than  Avould  follow  from  the  length  of 
the  beak  proportionally  with  that  of  the  rock- pigeon.  In 
one  Carrier  the  orifice  of  the  nostrils  w^as  thrice  as  long  as  in 
the  rock -pigeon,  though  in  body  and  length  of  beak  this  bird 
was  not  nearly  double  the  size  of  the  rock-pigeon.  This 
greatly  increased  length  of  the  orifice  of  the  nostrils  seems  to 
stand  partly  in  correlation  with  the  enlargement  of  the 
wattled  skin  on  the  upper  mandible  and  over  the  nostrils ; 
and  this  is  a  character  which  is  selected  by  fanciers.  So 
again,  the  broad,  naked,  and  wattled  skin  round  the  eyes  of 
Carriers  and  Barbs  is  a  selected  character;  and  in  obvious 
correlation  with  this,  the  eyelids,  measured  longitudinally, 
are  proportionally  more  than  double  the  length  of  those  ol 
the  rock-pigeon. 

The  great  difference  (see  woodcut  Xo.  27)  in  the  curvature 
of  the  lower  jaw  in  the  rock-pigeon,  the  Tumbler,  and  Baga- 
dotten Carrier,  stands  in  obvious  relation  to  the  curvature  of 
the  upper  jaw,  and  more  especially  to  the  angle  formed  by 
the  maxillo-jugal  arch  with  the  premaxillar}^  bones.  Ikit  in 
Carriers,  Eunts,  and  Barbs  the  singular  reflexion  of  the  upper 
margin  of  the  middle  part  of  the  lower  jaw  (see  woodcut 
No.  25)  is  not  strictly  correlated  with  the  width  or  divergence 
(as  may  be  clearly  seen  in  woodcut  Xo.  26)  of  the  premaxillary 
bcnes,  but  with  the  breadth  of  the  horny  and  soft  parts  of  the 
upper  mandible,  which  are  always  overlapped  by  the  edges  of 
the  lower  mandible. 

In  Pouters,  the  elongation  of  the  b^dy  is  a  selected  cha- 
racter, and  the  ribs,  as  we  have  seen,  have  generally  become 
very  broad,  with  the  seventh  pair  furnished  with  processes;  tho 


CuAP.  V.  CORRELATION   OF   GROWTH.  17 ^ 

sacral  and  caudal  vertebrae  liave  been  augmented  in  number ; 
the  sternum  has  likewise  increased  in  length  (but  not  in  the 
depth  of  the  crest)  by  '4  of  an  inch  more  than  would  follow 
from  the  greater  bulk  of  the  body  in  comparison  with  that 
of  the  rock-pigeon.  In  Fantails,  the  length  and  number  of 
the  caudal  vertebrae  have  increased.  Hence,  during  the 
gradual  progress  of  variation  and  selection,  the  internal  bony 
framework  and  the  external  shape  of  the  body  have  been,  to 
a  certain  extent,  modified  in  a  correlated  manner. 

Although  the  wings  and  tail  often  vary  in  length  inde- 
pendently of  each  other,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  doubt  that 
they  generally  tend  to  become  elongated  or  shortened  in 
correlation.  This  is  well  seen  in  Jacobins,  and  still  more 
-plainly  in  Emits,  some  varieties  of  which  have  their  wings 
and  tail  of  great  length,  whilst  others  have  both  Yery  short. 
With  Jacobins,  the  remarkable  length  of  the  tail  and  wing- 
feathers  is  not  a  character  which  is  intentionally  selected  by 
fanciers ;  but  fanciers  have  been  trying  for  centuries,  at  least 
since  the  year  1600,  to  increase  the  length  of  the  reversed 
feathers  on  the  neck,  so  that  the  hood  may  more  completely 
enclose  the  head ;  and  it  may  be  suspected  that  the  increased 
length  of  "the  wing  and  tail-feathers  stand  in  correlation  with 
the  increased  length  of  the  neck- feathers.  Short-faced  Tumblers 
have  short  wings  in  nearly  due  proportion  with  the  reduced 
size  of  their  bodies;  but  it  is  remarkable,  seeing  that  the 
number  of  the  primary  wing-feathers  is  a  constant  character 
in  most  birds,  that  these  Tumblers  generally  have  only  nine 
instead  of  ten  primaries.  I  have  myself  observed  this  in 
eight  birds;  and  the  Original  Columbarian  Society ^'^  reduced 
the  standard  for  Bald-head  Tumblers  from  ten  to  nine  white 
ilight-feathers,  thinking  it  unfair  that  a  bird  which  had  only 
nine  feathers  should  be  disqualified  for  a  prize  because  it  had 
not  ten  white  flight-feathers.  On  the  other  hand,  in  Carriers 
and  Runts,  which  have  large  bodies  and  long  wings,  eleven 
primary  feathers  have  occasionally  been  observed. 

Mr.  Tegetmeier  has  informed  me  of  a  curious  and  inexpli- 
cable case  of  correlation,  namely,  that  young  pigeons  of  all 
breeds  which  when  mature  become  white,  yellow,  silver  (z'.e., 
extremely  pale  blue), or  dun-coloured,  are  born  almost  naked; 
3'  J.  M.  Eaton's  Treatise,  edit.  1858,  p.  78. 


ISO  DOMESTIC  PIGEONS  :  Chap.  V. 

whereas  pigeons  of  other  colours  are  born  well-clothed  with 
down.  Mr.  Esquilant,  however,  has  observed  that  young 
dun  Carriers  are  not  so  bare  as  young  dun  Barbs  and  Tumblers. 
Mr.  Tegetmeier  has  seen  two  young  birds  in  the  same  nest, 
produced  from  differently  coloured  parents,  which  differed 
greatly  in  the  degree  to  which  they  were  at  first  clothed  with 
down. 

I  have  observed  another  case  of  correlation  which  at  first 
sight  appears  quite  inexplicable,  but  on  which,  as  we  shall 
see  in  a  future  chapter,  some  light  can  be  thrown  by  the  law 
of  homologous  parts  varying  in  the  same  manner.  The  case 
is,  that,  when  the  feet  are  much  feathered,  the  roots  of  the 
feathers  are  connected  by  a  web  of  skin,  and  apparently  in  cor- 
relation with  this  the  two  outer  toes  become  connected  for  a 
considerable  space  by  skin.  I  have  observed  this  in  very 
many  specimens  of  Pouters,  Trumpeters,  Swallows,  Eoller- 
tumblers  (likewise  observed  in  this  breed  by  Mr.  Brent),  and 
in  a  lesser  degree  in  other  feather-footed  pigeons. 

The  feet  of  the  smaller  and  larger  breeds  are  of  course 
much  smaller  or  larger  than  those  of  the  rock-pigeon;  but 
the  scutellce  or  scales  covering  the  toes  and  tarsi  have  not 
only  decreased  or  increased  in  size,  but  likewise  in  number. 
To  give  a  single  instance,  1  have  counted  eight  scutell*  on  the 
hind  toe  of  a  Hunt,  and  only  five  on  that  of  a  Short-faced 
Tumbler.  With  birds  in  a  state  of  nature  the  number  of  the 
scutellae  on  the  feet  is  usually  a  constant  character.  The 
length  of  the  feet  and  the  length  of  the  beak  apparently 
stand  in  correlation;  but  as  disuse  apparently  has  affected 
the  size  of  the  feet,  this  case  may  come  under  the  following- 
discussion. 

On  the  Effects  of  Disuse. — In  the  following  discussion  on  the 

relative  proportions  of  the  feet,  sternum,  furculum,  scapulae, 

and  wings,  I  may  premise,  in  order  to  give  some  confidence  to 

the  reader,  that  all  my  measurements  were  made  in  the  same 

manner,  and  that  they  were  made  without  the  least  intention 

of  applying  them  to  the  following  purpose. 

I  measured  most  of  the  birds  which  came  into  my  possession,  from 
the  feathered  base  of  the  beak  (the  length  of  beak  itself  being  so 
Vciriable)  to  the  end  of  the  tail,  and  to  the  oil-gland,  but  un- 
fortunately (except  in  a  few  cases)  not  to  the  root  of  the  tail ;    J 


Chap.  V 


ON   THE   EFFECTS   OF   DISUSE. 


181 


measured  each  bird  from  the  extreme  tip  to  tip  of  wing ;  and  the 
length  of  the  terminal  folded  part  of  the  wing,  from  the  extremity 
of  the  primaries  to  the  joint  of  the  radius.  I  measured  the  feet 
without  the  claws,  from  the  end  of  the  middle  toe  to  the  end  of 
the  hind  toe;  and  the  tarsus  and  middle  toe  together.  I  have 
taken  in  every  case  the  mean  measurement  of  two  wild  rock-pigeons 
from  the  Shetland  Islands,  as  the  standard  of  comparison.  The 
following  table  shows  the  actual  length  of  the  feet  in  each  bird  ; 

Table.  I. 

Pigeons  with  their  heaks  generally  shorter  than  that  of  the  Bock-pigeon^ 

l^roportionally  to  the  size  of  their  bodies. 


Name  of  Breed. 


Wild  rock-pigeon  (mean  mecasurenienf)    . . 

Short-faced  Tumbler,  bald  liead 

„  „  almond 

Tumbler,  red  magpie 

„           red  coiumon  (by  standard  to  end 
of  tail) 

„  common  bald-head     

„  roller    

Turbit 

»       

»  ^ 

Jacobin 

Trumpeter,  white        

„  mottled 

Fantail  (by  standard  to  end  of  tail) 

J?  ?i  )>  .... 

„       crested  var.         „  .... 

Indian  Frill-back  „  .... 

English  Frill-back      

Nun        , 

Laugher        

Barb       

Sp^t        '.'.      ..      '..      ..      '.'.      ..      '.'.      '.'. 

»i  

Swallow,  red         

„  blue      

Pouter 

„  German        

Bussorah  Carrier 

Number  of  specimens 


Actual 

length 

of 

Feet 


2-02 


57 
60 
75 

85 
85 
80 
75 
80 
84 
90 
02 
95 
85 
95 
95 
80 
10 
82 
05 
00 
00 
90 
90 
85 
00 
42 
30 
17 


Difference  between 
actual  and  calculated 

length  of  feet,  in 

proportion  to  length  oi 

feet  and  size  of  bodj 

in  the  Kock-pigeon 


Too  hhort 

by 


11 

16 
19 

07 

18 

06 

17 

Oi 

15 

02 

06 

18 

15 

15 

0 

19 

08 

02 

16 

03 

02 
07 
18 


28 


22 


Too  long 
by 


03 


03 
U 
09 
09 


182 


DOMESTIC   PIGEONS: 


Chap.  V. 


and  the  difference  between  the  length  which  the  feet  ought  to  have 
had  according  to  the  size  of  body  of  each,  in  comparison  with  the 
size  of  body  and  length  of  feet  of  the  rock-pigeon,  calculated  (with 
a  few  specified  exceptions)  by  the  standard  of  the  length  of  the  body 
from  the  base  of  the  beak  to  the  oil-gland.  I  have  preferred  this 
standard,  owing  to  the  variability  of  the  length  of  tail.  But  I  have 
made  similar  calculations,  taking  as  the  standard  the  length  from 
tip  to  tip  of  wing,  and  likewise  in  most  cases  from  the  base  of  the 
beak  to  the  end  of  the  tail ;  and  the  result  has  always  been  closely 
similar.  To  give  an  example :  the.  first  bird  in  the  table,  being 
a  Short-faced  Tumbler,  is  much  smaller  than  the  rock-pigeon,  and 
would  naturally  have  shorter  feet ;  but  it  is  found  on  calculation  to 
have  feet  too  short  by  ll  of  an  inch,  in  comparison  with  the  feet  of 
the  rock-pigeon,  relatively  to  the  size  of  the  body  in  these  two  birds, 
as  measured  from  the  base  of  beak  to  the  oil-gland.  So  again,  when 
this  same  Tumbler  and  the  rock-pigeon  were  compared  by  the  length 
of  their  wings,  or  by  the  extreme  length  of  their  bodies,  the  feet  of 
the  Tumbler  were  likewise  found  to  be  too  short  in  very  nearly  the 
same  proportion.  I  am  well  aware  that  the  measurements  pretend 
to  greater  accuracy  than  is  possible,  but  it  was  less  trouble  to  write 
down  the  actual  measurements  given  by  the  comjmsses  in  each  case 
than  an  approximation. 

Table  TI. 

Pigeons  with  their  heaJcs  longer  than  that  of  the  BocJc-pigeon,  proportionaUy 
to  the  size  of  their  bodies. 


Name  of  Breed. 


Wild  rock-pigeon  (mean  measurement) 

Carrier 

>j  

„  Dragon        

BagacTotten  Carrier     

ScanderooD,  whUe        

„  Pigeon  cygne 

Hunt       

Number  of  specimens    . . 


Actual 
length 

of 
Feet 


2-02 


J    DifF  rence  bftween 
!  actual  and  calculated 
'       It-ngth  of  fret,  in 
pr.iporiion  to  length  of 

feet  and  size  oF  lody 
I    in  the  Rock-pigeon. 


Too  short 
by 


Too  lon^ 
i-y 


2 

60 

2 

60 

2 

40 

1 

2 

25 

1 

2 

80 

1 

•• 

2 

80 

! 

2 

85 

2 

75 

0-31 
0-25 
0-21 
0-06 
0-56 
0-37 
0-29 
0-27 


8 


Tn  these  two  tables  we  see  in  the  first  column  the  actual  length 
of  the  feet  in  thirty-six  birds  belonging  to  various  breeds,  and  in 
the  two  other  columns  we  see  by  how  much  the  feet  are  too  shore 
or  too  long,  according  to  the  size  of  bird,  in  comparison  with  the 
rock-pigeon.    In  the  first  table  twenty-two  specimens  have  their 


Chap.  V.  ON   THE   EFFECTS   OF   DISUSE.  183 

feet  too  short,  on  an  average  by  a  little  above  the  tenth  of  an  inch 
(viz.  'lO?) ;  and  five  specimens  have  their  feet  on  an  average  a  very- 
little  too  long,  namely,  by  '07  of  an  inch.  But  some  of  these  latter 
cases  can  be  explained  ;  for  instance,  with  Pouters  the  legs  and  feet 
are  selected  for  length,  and  thus  any  natural  tendency  to  a  dimi- 
nution in  the  length  of  the  feet  will  have  been  counteracted.  In 
the  Swallow  and  Barb,  when  the  calculation  was  made  on  any 
standard  of  comparison  besides  the  one  used  (viz.  length  of  body 
from  base  of  beak  to  oil-gland),  the  feet  were  found  to  be  too  small. 

In  the  second  table  we  have  eight  birds,  with  their  beaks  much 
longer  than  in  the  rock-pigeon,  both  actually  and  proportionally  with 
the  size  of  body,  and  their  feet  are  in  an  equally  marked  manner 
longer,  namely,  in  proportion,  on  an  average  by  '29  of  an  inch.  I 
should  here  state  that  in  Table  I.  there  are  a  few  partial  exceptions  to 
the  beak  being  proportionally  shorter  than  in  the  rock-pigeon  :  thus 
the  beak  of  the  English  Frill-back  is  just  perceptibly  longer,  and  that 
of  the  Bussorah  Carrier  of  the  same  length  or  slightly  longer,  than  in 
the  rock-pigeon.  The  beaks  of  Spots,  Swallows,  and  Laughers  are 
only  a  very  little  shorter,  or  of  the  same  proportional  length,  but 
slenderer.  Nevertheless,  these  two  tables,  taken  conjointly,  indicate 
pretty  plainly  some  kind  of  correlation  between  the  length  of  the 
beak  and  the  size  of  the  feet.  Breeders  of  cattle  and  horses  believe 
that  there  is  an  analogous  connection  between  the  length  of  the 
limbs  and  head ;  they  assert  that  a  race-horse  with  the  head  of  a 
dray-horse,  or  a  grey-hound  with  the  head  of  a  bulldog,  would  be  a 
monstrous  production.  As  fancy  pigeons  are  generally  kept  in 
small  aviaries,  and  are  abundantly  supplied  with  food,  they  must 
walk  about  much  less  than  the  wild  rock-pigeon  ;  and  it  may  be 
admitted  as  highly  probable  that  the  reduction  in  the  size  of  the 
feet  in  the  twenty-two  birds  in  the  first  table  has  been  caused  by 
disuse,  ^  and  that  this  reduction  has  acted  by  correlation  on  the 
beaks  of  the  great  majority  of  the  birds  in  Table  I.  When,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  beak  has  been  much  elongated  by  the  continued 
selection  of  successive  slight  increments  of  length,  the  feet  by  corre- 
lation have  likewise  become  much  elongated  in  comparison  with 
those  of  the  wild  rock-pigeon,  notwithstanding  their  lessened  use. 

As  I  had  taken  measures  from  the  end  of  the  middle  toe  to  the 
heel  of  the  tarsus  in  the  rock-pigeon  and  in  the  above  thirty-six 
birds,  I  have  made  calculations  analogous  with  those  above  given, 
and  the  result  is  the  same  — namely,  that  in  the  short-beaked 
breeds,  with  equally  few  exceptions  as  in  the  former  case,  the 
middle  toe  conjointly  with  the  tarsus  has  decreased  in  length ; 
whereas  in  the  long-beaked  breeds  it  has  increased  in  length, 
though  not  quite  so  uniformly  as  in  the  former  case,  for  the  leg  in 
some  varieties  of  the  Eunt  varies  much  in  length. 

*'  Tn  an  analogous,  but  converse,  allied  groups,  have  larger  feet.     Sec 

manaer,    certain    natural    groups    of  Prince  Bonaparte's    '  Coup-d'oeil    sm 

the  Columbidae,  from  being  more  ter-  I'Order  des  Pigeons.' 
restrial  in  their    habits  than   other 


184 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS; 


Chap.  V. 


As  fancy  pigeons  are  generally  confined  in  aviaries  of  moderate 
F,izc,  and  as  even  when  not  confined  tlieydo  not  search  for  their  own 
food,  they  must  during  many  generations  have  used  their  wings 
incomparably  less  than  tlie  wild  rock-pigeon.  Hence  it  seemed  to 
me  probable  that  all  the  parts  of  the  skeleton  subservient  to  flight 
would  be  found  to  be  reduced  in  size.  With  respect  to  the  sternum, 
I  have  carefully  measured  its  extreme  length  in  twelve  birds  of 
different  breeds,  and  in  two  wild  rock-pigeons  from  the  Shetland 
Islands.  For  the  proportional  comparison  I  have  tried  three 
standards  of  measurement,  with  all  twelve  birds  namely,  the  length 
from  the  base  of  the  beak  to  the  oil-gland,  to  the  end  of  the  tail, 
and  from  the  extreme  tip  to  tip  of  wings.  The  result  has  been  in 
each  case  nearly  the  same,  the  sternum  being  invariably  found  to 
be  shorter  than  in  the  wild  rock-pigeon.  I  will  give  only  a  single 
table,  as  calculated  by  the  standard  from  the  base  of  the  beak  to 
the  oil-gland;  for  the  result  in  this  case  is  nearly  the  mean  between 
the  results  obtained  by  the  two  other  standards. 

Length  of  Sternum. 


Name  of  Breed. 


Wild  Kock-pigeon 
Pied  Scanderoon    .. 
Bagadottea  Carrier 

Dragon 

Carrier 

Short  faced  Tumbler 


Actual 
Length. 
Inches. 

Too 
Short  by 

2-55 

•• 

2-80 

0-60 

2-80 

0-17 

2-45 

0-41 

2-75 

0-35 

2-05 

0-28 

Name  of  Breed. 


Birb       

Nun        

German  Pouter    .. 

Jacobin 

English  Frill-back 
Swallow 


Actual 
Leiii;th. 
Inches. 


2-35 
2-27 
2-36 
2-33 
2-40 
2-45 


Too 
Short  by 


0-34 
0-15 
0  ot 
0  22 
0-43 
017 


This  table  shows  that  in  these  twelve  breeds  the  sternum  is  of 
an  average  one-third  of  an  inch  (exactly  "332)  shorter  than  in  the 
rock-pigeon,  proportionally  with  the  size  of  their  bodies ;  so  that 
the  sternum  has  been  reduced  by  between  one-seventh  and  one- 
eighth  of  its  entire  length;  and  this  is  a  considerable  reduction. 

I  have  also  measured  in  twenty-one  birds,  including  the  above 
dozen,  the  prominence  of  the  crest  of  the  sternum  relatively  to  its 
length,  independently  of  the  size  of  the  body.  In  two  of  the  twenty- 
one  birds  the  crest  was  prominent  in  the  same  relative  degree  as 
in  the  rock-pigeon;  in  seven  it  was  more  prominent;  but  in  five 
out  of  these  seven,  namely,  in  a  Fantail,  two  Scanderoons,  and  two 
English  Carriers,  this  greater  prominence  may  to  a  certain  extent 
be  explained,  as  a  prominent  breast  is  admired  and  selected  by 
fancieis;  in  the  remaining  twelve  birds  the  prominence  was  less. 
Hence  xt  follows  that  the  crest  exhibits  a  slight,  though  uncertain, 
tendency  to  be  reduced  in  prominence  in  a  greater  degree  than  does 
the  length  of  the  sternum  relatively  to  the  size  of  body,  in  comparison 
with  the  rock-pigeon. 

I  have  measured  the  length  of  the  scapula  in  nine  difierent  large 


Chap.  V.  ON   THE   EFFECTS   OF   DISUSE.  185 

and  small-sized  breeds,  and  in  all  the  scapula  is  prcportiouallj/ 
shorter  (taking  the  same  standard  as  before)  than  in  the  wild  rock- 
pigeon.  The  reduction  in  length  on  an  average  is  very  nearly  one- 
fifth  of  an  inch,  or  about  one-ninth  of  the  length  of  the  scapula  in 
the  rock-pigeon. 

The  arms  of  the  furcula  in  all  the  specimens  which  I  compared, 
diverged  less,  proportionally  with  the  size  of  body,  than  in  the  rock- 
pigeon;  and  the  whole  furculum  was  proportionally  shorter.  Thus 
in  a  Eunt,  which  measured  from,  tip  to  tip  of  wings  38i  inches,  the 
furculum  was  only  a  very  little  longer  (with  the  arms  hardly  more 
divergent)  than  in  a  rock-pigeon  which  measured  from  tip  to  tip 
261-  inches.  In  a  Barb,  which  in  all  its  measurements  was  a  little 
larger  than  the  same  rock-pigeon,  the  furculum  was  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  shorter.  In  a  Pouter,  the  furculum  had  not  been  lengthened 
proportionally  with  the  increased  length  of  the  body.  In  a  Short- 
faced  Tumbler,  which  measured  from  tip  to  tip  of  wings  24  inches, 
therefore  only  21  inches  less  than  the  rock-pigeon,  the  furculum  was 
barely  two-thirds  of  the  length  of  that  of  the  rock-pigeon. 

We  thus  clearly  see  that  the  sternum,  scapulae,  and  furculum 
are  all  reduced  in  proportional  length ;  but  v^hen  we  turn  to 
the  wings  we  find  what  at  first  appears  a  wholly  difi'erent 
and  unexpected  result.  I  may  here  remark  that  I  have  not 
picked  out  specimens,  hut  have  used  every  measurement  made 
by  me.  Taking  the  length  from  the  base  of  beak  to  the  end 
of  the  tail  as  the  standard  of  comparison,  I  find  that,  out  of 
thirty- five  birds  of  various  breeds,  twenty-five  have  wings  of 
greater,  and  ten  have  them  of  less  proportional  length,  than 
in  the  rock-pigeon.  But  from  the  frequently  correlated 
length  of  the  tail  and  wing-feathers,  it  is  better  to  take  as 
the  standard  of  comparison  the  length  from  the  base  of  the 
beak  to  the  oil-gland ;  and  by  this  standard,  out  of  twenty- 
six  of  the  same  birds  which  had  been  thus  measured,  twenty- 
one  had  wings  too  long,  and  only  five  had  them  too  short. 
In  the  twenty-one  birds  the  wings  exceeded  in  length  those  of 
the  rock-pigeon,  on  an  average,  by  I3  inch ;  whilst  in  the  five 
birds  they  were  less  in  length  by  only  -8  of  an  inch.  As  I  was 
much  surprised  that  the  wings  of  closely  confined  birds  should 
thus  so  frequently  have  been  increased  in  length,  it  occurred 
to  me  that  it  might  be  solely  due  to  the  greater  length  of  the 
wing-feathers ;  for  this  certainly  is  the  case  with  the  Jacobin, 
which  has  wings  of  unusual  length.  As  in  almost  every  case 
I  had  measured  the  folded  wings,  I  subtracted  the  length  of 


L86  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS :  Chap.  V. 

this  terminal  part  from  that  of  the  expanded  wings,  and  thus 
I  obtained,  with  a  moderate  degree  of  accuracy,  the  length  oi 
the  wings  from  the  ends  of  the  two  radii,  answering  from 
wrist  to  wrist  in  our  arms.  The  wings,  thus  measured  in 
the  same  twenty-five  birds,  now  gave  a  widely  different 
result ;  for  they  were  proportionally  with  those  of  the  rock- 
pigeon  too  short  in  seventeen  birds,  and  in  only  eight  too 
long.  Of  these  eight  birds,  five  were  long-beaked,^^  and  thia 
fact  perhaps  indicates  that  there  is  some  correlation  of  the 
length  of  the  beak  with  the  length  of  the  bones  of  the  wings, 
in  the  same  manner  as  with  that  of  the  feet  and  tarsi.  The 
shortening  of  the  humerus  and  radius  in  the  seventeen  birds 
may  probably  be  attributed  to  disuse,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Bcapulee  and  furculum  to  which  the  wing-bones  are  attached  ; — 
the  lengthening  of  the  wing-feathers,  and  consequently  the 
expansion  of  the  wings  from  tip  to  tip,  being,  on  the  other 
hand,  as  completely  independent  of  use  and  disuse  as  is  the 
growth  of  the  hair  or  wool  on  our  long-haired  dogs  or  long- 
woolled  sheep. 

To  sum  up :  we  may  confidently  admit  that  the  length  of 
the  sternum,  and  frequently  the  prominence  of  its  crest,  the 
length  of  the  scapulae  and  furculum,  have  all  been  reduced  in 
size  in  comparison  with  the  same  parts  in  the  rock-pigeon. 
And  I  presume  that  this  may.  be  attributed  to  disuse  or 
lessened  exercise.  The  wings,  as  measured  from  the  ends  of 
the  radii,  have  likewise  been  generally  reduced  in  length  ; 
but,  owing  to  the  increased  growth  of  the  wing-feathers,  the 
wings,  from  tip  to  tip,  are  commonly  longer  than  in  the  rock- 
pigeon.  The  feet,  as  well  as  the  tarsi  conjointly  with  the 
middle  toe,  have  likewise  in  most  cases  become  reduced ;  and 
this  it  is  probable  has  been  caused  by  their  lessened  use ;  but 
the  existence  of  some  sort  of  correlation  between  the  feet  8.nd 
beak  is  shown  more  plainly  than  the  effects  of  disuse.     We 

35*  It  p?Thap^  deserves  notice  that  would,  therefore,  appear  as  if,  during 

besides  these   five   birds    two  of  the  the  reduction   of  their    beaks,    their 

eio-ht  were   Barbs,  which,  as  I  have  wings  had  retained  a   little  of  that 

sliown,  must  be  classed  in   the  same  excess  of  length  which  is  characteris- 

group  with  the  long-beaked  Carriers  tic  of  their  nearest  relations  and  prc- 

and  Runts.     Barbs  may  properly  be  genitors. 
called     short  beaked    Carriers.        It 


Chap.  V.  SUMMARY   OF  DIFFERENCES.  187 

have  also  some  laint  indication  of  a  similar  correlation  between 
the  main  bones  of  the  wing  and  the  beak. 

Summary  on  the  Points  of  Difference  between  the  several  Domestic 
Maces,  and  between  the  individual  Birds. —  The  beak,  together 
with  the  bones  of  the  face,  differ  remarkably  in  length, 
b]-eadth,  shape,  and  curvature.  The  skull  differs  in  shape, 
and  greatly  in  the  angle  formed  by  the  union  of  the  pre- 
maxillary,  nasal,  and  maxillo-jugal  bones.  The  curvature  of 
the  lower  jaw  and  the  reflection  of  its  upper  margin,  as  well 
as  the  gape  of  the  mouth,  differ  in  a  highly  remarkable 
manner.  The  tongue  varies  much  in  length,  both  in- 
dependently and  in  correlation  with  the  length  of  the  beak. 
The  development  of  the  naked,  wattled  skin  over  the  nostrils 
and  round  the  eyes  varies  in  an  extreme  degree.  The  eyelids 
and  the  external  orifices  of  the  nostrils  vary  in  length,  and 
are  to  a  certain  extent  correlated  with  the  degree  of  develop 
ment  of  the  wattle.  The  size  and  form  of  the  oesophagus 
and  crop,  and  their  capacity  for  inflation,  differ  immensely. 
The  length  of  the  neck  varies.  With  the  varying  shape  of 
the  body,  the  breadth  and  number  of  the  ribs,  the  presence  of 
processes,  the  number  of  the  sacral  vertebras,  and  the  length 
of  the  sternum,  all  vary.  The  number  and  size  of  the 
coccygeal  vertebra}  vary,  apparently  in  correlation  with  the 
increased  size  of  the  tail.  The  size  and  shape  of  the  perfora- 
tions in  the  sternum,  and  the  size  and  divergence  of  the  arms 
of  the  furculum,  differ.  The  oil-gland  varies  in  development, 
and  is  sometimes  quite  aborted.  The  direction  and  length  of 
certain  feathers  have  been  much  modified,  as  in  the  hood  of 
the  Jacobin  and  the  frill  of  the  Turbit.  The  wing  and  tail- 
feathers  generally  vary  in  length  together,  but  sometimes 
independently  of  each  other  and  of  the  size  of  the  body.  The 
number  and  position  of  the  tail-feather  vary  to  an  unparalleled 
degree.  The  primary  and  secondary  wing-feathers  occasion- 
ally vary  in  number,  apparently  in  correlation  with  the 
length  of  the  wing.  The  length  of  the  leg  and  the  size  of 
the  feet,  and,  in  connection  with  the  latter,  the  number  of 
the  scutellse,  all  vary.  A  web  of  skin  sometimes  connects 
the  bases  of  the  two  inner  toes,  and  almost  invariably  the  two 
outer  toes  when  the  feet  are  feathered. 

The  size  of  the  body  differs  greatly :  a  Kunt  has  been  known 


188  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS.  Chap,  V. 

to  -vveigli  more  tlian  five  times  as  miicli  as  a  Short-faced 
Tumbler.  Tlie  eggs  diifer  in  size  and  shape.  According  to 
Parmentier,**'  some  races  use  much  straw  in  building  their 
nests,  and  others  use  little ;  but  I  cannot  hear  of  any  recent 
corroboration  of  this  statement.  The  length  of  time  required 
for  hatching  the  eggs  is  uniform  in  all  the  breeds.  The  period 
at  which  the  characteristic  plumage  of  some  breeds  is  acquired, 
and  at  which  certain  changes  of  colour  supervene,  differs. 
The  degree  to  which  the  young  birds  are  clothed  with  down 
when  first  hatched  is  different,  and  is  correlated  in  a  singular 
manner  with  the  colour  of  the  plumage.  The  manner  of 
flight,  and  certain  inherited  movements,  such  as  clapping  the 
wings,  tumbling  either  in  the  air  or  on  the  ground,  and  the 
manner  of  courting  the  female,  present  the  most  singular 
differences.  In  disposition  the  several  races  differ.  Some 
races  are  very  silent;  others  coo  in  a  highly  peculiar 
manner. 

Although  many  different  races  have  kept  true  in  character 
during  several  centuries,  as  we  shall  hereafter  more  fully 
see,  yet  there  is  far  more  individual  variability  in  the  most 
constant  breeds  than  in  birds  in  a  state  of  nature.  There  is 
hardl}'"  any  exception  to  the  rule  that  those  characters  vary 
most  which  are  now  most  valued  and  attended  to  by  fanciers, 
and  which  consequently  are  now  being  improved  by  continued 
selection.  This  is  indirectly  admitted  by  fanciers  when  they 
complain  that  it  is  much  more  difficult  to  breed  high  fancy 
pigeons  up  to  the  proper  standard  of  excellence  than  the  so- 
called  toy  pigeons,  which  differ  from  each  other  merely  in 
colour;  for  particular  colours  when  once  acquired  are  not 
liable  to  continued  improvement  or  augmentation.  Some 
characters  become  attached,  from  quite  unknown  causes,  more 
slroEgl}'  to  the  male  than  to  the  female  sex;  so  that  we  have 
in  certain  races,  a  tendency  towards  the  appearance  of  secon- 
dary sexual  characters,^^  of  which  the  aboriginal  rock-pigeon 
displays  not  a  trace. 

*<*  Temminck,  '  Hist.   Nat.  Gen.  des  between  the  males  and  females,  as  are 

Pigeons    et    des    Gallinaces,'    tom.  i.,  not  directly  connected  with  the  act  of 

1813,  p.  170.  reproduction,  as  the  tail  of  the  pea 

**  This    terra    was    used    by    John  cock,  the  horns  of  deer,  &c. 
Hunter  for  such  differences  in  structure 


Chap.  YL     DOMESTIC   PIGEONS:   THEIR   PARENTAGE.  189 


CHAPTER    YI. 

PIGEON  s — continued. 

ON  THE  ABORIGINAL  PARENT-STOCK  OF  THE  SEVERAL  DOMESTIC  RACES- 
HABITS  OP  LIFE — ^WILD  RACES  OF  THE  ROCK-PIGEON — ^DOVECOT-PIGEONS — 
PROOFS  OF  THE  DESCENT  OF  THE  SEVERAL  RACES  FROM  COLUMBA  LIVIA 
— FERTILITY  OF  THE  RACES  WHEN  CROSSED — REVERSION  TO  THE  PLUMAGE 
OF  THE  WILD  ROCK-PIGEON — CIRCUMSTANCES  FAVOURABLE  TO  THE  FOR- 
MATION OF  THE  RACES — ANTIQUITY  AND  HISTORY  OP  THE  PRINCIPAL 
RACES — MANNER  OF  THEIR  FORMATION — SELECTION — UNCONSCIOUS  SE- 
LECTION— CARE  TAKEN  BY  FANCIERS  IN  SELECTING  THEIR  BIRDS — 
SLIGHTLY  DIFFERENT  STRAINS  GRADUALLY  CHANGE  INTO  WELL-MARKED 
BREEDS — EXTINCTION  OF  INTERMEDIATE  FORMS — CERTAIN  BREEDS  REMAIN 
PERMANENT,   WHILST   OTHERS   CHANGE — SUMMARY. 

The  differences  described  in  tlie  last  cliapter  between  the 
eleven  chief  domestic  races  and  between  individual  birds  ot 
the  same  race,  would  be  of  little  significance,  if  they  had  not 
all  descended  from  a  single  wild  stock.  'J'he  question  of  their 
origin  is  therefore  of  fundamental  importance,  and  must  be 
discussed  at  considerable  length.  No  one  will  think  this 
suj)erfluous  who  considers  the  great  amount  of  difference 
between  the  races,  who  knows  how  ancient  many  of  them 
are,  and  how  truly  they  breed  at  the  present  day.  Fanciers 
almost  unanimously  believe  that  the  different  races  are 
descended  from  several  wild  stocks,  whereas  most  naturalists 
believe  that  all  are  descended  from  the  Columha  livia  or  rock- 
pigeon. 

Temminck  ^  has  well  observed,  and  Mr.  Gould  has  made 
the  same  remark  to  me,  that  the  aboriginal  parent  must  have 
been  a  species  which  roosted  and  built  its  nest  on  rocks ;  and 
I  may  add  that  it  must  have  been  a  social  bird.  For  all  the 
domestic  races  are  highly  social,  and  none  are  known  to  build 
or  habitually  to  roost  on  trees.  The  awkward  manner  in 
which  some  pigeons,  kept  by  me  in  a  summer-house  near  an 
old  walnut-tree^  occasionally  alighted  on  the  barer  branches, 

*  Temminck,  'Hist.  Nat.  Gen.  des  Pigeons,'  &c.,  toin.  i.  p.  191. 


190  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS:  Chap.  VI. 

was  evident.^  Nevertheless,  Mr.  E.  Scot  Skirving  informs 
me  tliat  he  often  saw  ciowds  of  pigeons  in  Upper  Egypt 
settling  on  low  trees,  but  not  on  palms,  in  preference  to 
alighting  on  the  mud  hovels  of  the  natives.  In  India  Mr. 
Blyth^  has  been  assured  that  the  wild  G.  livia,  var.  intermedia, 
sometimes  roosts  in  trees.  I  may  here  give  a  curious  instance 
of  compulsion  leading  to  changed  habits :  the  banks  of  the 
Nile  above  lat.  28°  30'  are  perpendicular  for  a  long  distance, 
so  that  when  the  river  is  full  the  pigeons  cannot  alight  on 
the  shore  to  drink,  and  Mr.  Skirving  repeatedly  saw  whole 
flocks  settle  on  the  water,  and  drink  whilst  they  floated  down 
the  stream.  These  flocks  seen  from  a  distance  resembled 
flocks  of  gulls  on  the  surface  of  the  sea. 

If  any  domestic  race  had  descended  from  a  species  which 
was  not  social,  or  which  built  its  nest  and  roosted  in  trees,"* 
the  shai'p  eyes  of  fanciers  would  assuredly  have  detected  some 
vestige  of  so  different  an  aboriginal  habit.  For  we  have 
reason  to  believe  that  aboriginal  habits  are  long  retained 
under  domestication.  Thus  with  the  common  ass  we  see 
signs  of  its  original  desert  life  in  its  strong  dislike  to  cross 
the  smallest  stream  of  water,  and  in  its  pleasure  in  rolling  in 
the  dust.  The  same  strong  dislike  to  cross  a  strearq.  is 
C(>mmon  to  the  camel,  which  has  been  domesticated  from  a 
very  ancient  period.  Young  pig;^,  though  so  tame,  sometimes 
squat  when  frightened,  and  thus  try  to  conceal  themselves 
even  on  an  open  and  bare  place.  Young  turkeys,  and  occa- 
sionally even  young  fowls,  when  the  hen  gives  the  danger- 
cry,  run  away  and  try  to  hide  themselves,  like  young  par- 
tridges or  pheasants,  in  order  that  their  mother  may  take 

^  I  have  heard  through  Sir  C.  Lyell  *  In  works  written  on  the  pigeon 

from   Miss   Buckley,  that  some  half-  by  fanciers  I  have  sometimes  observed 

bred  Carriers  kept  during  many  years  the    mistaken    belief  expressed    that 

near  London  regularly  settled  by  day  the    species  which    naturalists  called 

on   some    adjoining   trees,   and,  after  ground-pigeons  (in    conti-adistinction 

being  disturbed  in  their  loft  by  their  to  arboreal  pigeons)  do  not  perch  and 

young  being  taken,  roosted  on  them  at  build  on  trees.     In  these  same  works 

night.  by    fanciers    wild  species  resembling 

^  '  Annals  and  Mag,  of  Nat.  Hist.,'  the  chief  domestic  races  are  often  said 

2ud  ser.,  vol.  xx.,   1857,  p.  509  ;  and  to  exist  in  various  parts  of  the  world, 

in  a  late  volume  of  the  Journal  of  the  but  such  species  are  quite  unknown 

Asiatic  Society.  to  naturalists. 


Chap.  VI.  THEIE   PAEENTAGE.  191 

flight,  of  which  she  has  lost  the  power.  The  musk-dnck 
(Cairina  moschata)  in  its  native  country  often  perches  and 
roosts  on  trees,^  and  our  domesticated  mnsk-ducks.  though 
such  sluggish  birds,  "  are  fond  of  perching  on  the  tops  of 
barns,  walls,  &c.,  and,  if  allowed  to  spend  the  night  in  Iho 
hen-house,  the  female  will  generally  go  to  roost  by  the  side 
of  the  hens,  but  the  drake  is  too  heavy  to  mount  thither  with 
ease."  ^  We  know  that  the  dog,  however  well  and  regularly 
fed,  often  buries,  like  the  fox,  any  superfluous  food ;  and  we 
see  him  turning  round  and  round  on  a  carpet,  as  if  to  trample 
down  grass  to  form  a  bed ;  we  see  him  on  bare  pavements 
scratching  backwards  as  if  to  thiow  earth  over  his  excrement, 
although,  as  I  believe,  this  is  never  effected  even  where  there 
is  earth.  In  the  delight  with  which  lambs  and  kids  crowd 
together  and  frisk  on  the  smallest  hillock,  we  see  a  vestige  of 
their  former  alpine  habits. 

We  have  therefore  good  reason  to  believe  that  all  the 
domestic  races  of  the  pigeon  are  descended  either  from  some 
one  or  from  several  species  w^iich  both  roosted  and  built  their 
nests  on  rocks,  and  were  social  in  disposition.  As  only  fi\e 
or  six  wild  species  have  these  habits,  and  make  any  near 
approach  in  structure  to  the  domesticated  pigeon,  I  will 
enumerate  them. 

Firstly,  the  CoIum'baJeuconotaveseTableBceTtnJn  domestic  varieties 
in  its  plumage,  with  the  one  marked  and  never-failing  difference  of 
a  white  band  which  crosses  the  tail  at  some  distance  from  the 
extremity.  This  species,  moreover,  inhabits  the  Himalaya,  close  to 
the  limit  of  perpetual  snow ;  and  therefore,  as  Mr.  Blyth  has  re- 
marked, is  not  likely  to  have  been  the  parent  of  our  domestic 
breeds,  which  thrive  in  the  hottest  countries.  Secondly,  the  0. 
rupestris,  of  Central  Asia,  which  is  intermediate  ^  between  the  <'. 
leuconota  and  livia ;  but  has  nearly  the  same  coloured  tail  as  the 
former  species.  Thirdly,  the  Columha  littondis  builds  and  roosts, 
according  to  Temminck,  on  rocks  in  the  Malayan  archipelago ;  it  is 
white,  excepting  parts  of  the  wing  and  the  tip  of  the  tail,  which  are 
black ;  its  legs  are  livid-coloured,  and  this  is  a  character  not 
observed  in  any  adult  domestic  pigeon  ;  but  1  need  not  have 
mentioned  this  species  or  the  closely -allied  C.  luduosa,  as  they  ]n 


*  Sir  R.  Schomburgk,  in  '  Journal  ^  Rev.    E.    S.  Dixon,   *  OrnaTnental 

R.  Geogvaph.  Soc.,'  vol.  xiii.,   1844,       Poultry,'  1848,  pp.  63,  Q^. 
p  32.  '  Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc,  1859,  p.  -100. 


192  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS:  Chap.  VL 

fact  belong  to  tlie  genus  Carpophaga.  Fourthly,  Colurriba  guinea, 
which  ranges  from  Guinea^  to  tne  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  roosts 
either  on  trees  or  rocks,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  country. 
This  species  belongs  to  the  genus  Strictoenas  of  Eeichenbach,  but 
is  closely  allied  to  Columba;  it  is  to  some  extent  coloured  like 
certain  domestic  races,  and  has  been  said  to  be  domesticated  in 
Abyssinia ;  but  Mr  Mansfield  Parkyns,  who  collected  the  birds  of 
that  country  and  knows  the  species,  informs  me  that  this  is  a 
mistake.  Moreover,  the  G.  guinea  is  characterized  by  the  feathers 
of  the  neck  having  peculiar  notched  tips, — a  character  not  observed 
in  any  domestic  race.  Fifthly,  the  Colurriba  cenas  of  Europe,  which 
roosts  on  trees,  and  builds  its  nest  in  holes,  either  in  trees  or  the 
ground  ;  this  species,  as  far  as  external  characters  go,  might  be  the 
parent  of  several  domestic  races ;  but,  though  it  crosses  readily 
with  the  true  rock-pigeon,  the  offspring,  as  we  shall  presently  see, 
are  sterile  hybrids,  and  of  such  sterility  there  is  not  a  trace  when 
the  domestic  races  are  intercrossed.  It  should  also  be  observed 
that  if  we  were  to  admit,  against  all  probability,  that  any  of  the 
foregoing  five  or  six  sj)ecies  were  the  parents  of  some  of  our 
domestic  pigeons,  not  the  least  light  would  be  thrown  on  the 
chief  differences  between  the  eleven  most  strongly-marked  races. 

We  now  come  to  the  best  known  rock-pigeon,  the  Columba  livia, 
which  is  often  designated  in  Europe  pre-eminently  as  the  Eock- 
pigeou,  and  which  naturalists  believe  to  be  the  parent  of  all  the 
domesticated  breeds.  This  bird  agrees  in  every  essential  character 
with  the  breeds  which  have  been  only  slightly  modified.  It  differs 
from  all  other  species  in  being  of  a  slaty-blue  colour,  with  two  black 
bars  on  the  wings,  and  with  the  croup  (or  loins)  white.  Occasionally 
birds  are  seen  in  Faroe  and  the  Hebrides  with  the  black  bars 
replaced  by  two  or  three  black  spots ;  this  form  has  been  named  by 
Brehm  ^  C.  amalice,  but  this  species  has  not  been  admitted  as  distinct 
by  other  ornithologists.  Graba  ^°  even  found  a  difference  in  the  bars 
on  the  right  and  left  wings  of  the  same  bird  in  Faroe.  Another  and 
rather  more  distinct  form  is  either  truly  wild  or  has  become  feral 
on  the  cliffs  of  England  and  was  doubtfully  named  by  Mr.  Ely  th  " 
as  C.  affinis,  but  is  now  no  longer  considered  by  him  as  a  distinct 
species.  C.  offinis  is  rather  smaller  than  the  rock-pigeon  of  the 
Scottish  islands,  and  has  a  very  different  appearance  owing  to  the 
wing-coverts  being  chequered  with  black,  with  similar  marks  often 
extending  over  the  back.     The  chequering  consists  of  a  large  black 

*  Temminck,  '  Hist.  Nat.  Gen.  des  by  Mr.  Gosse  that  this  is  an  error. 

Pigeons,' torn.  i. ;  also  '  Les  Pigeons,  ^  'Handbiich       der      Naturgesnh. 

par  Mme.  Knip  and  Temminck.   Bona-  Vogel  Deutschlands.' 

parte,   however,  in   his  '  Coup-d'ceil,'  ^*^  '  Tagebuch,    Reise    nach    Faro,' 

believes  that  two  closely  allied  species  1830,  s.  62. 

are  confounded  together  under  this  ^^  '  Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.* 
name.  The  C.  leucocephali  of  the  vol.  xix.  1847,  p.  102.  This  excellent 
West  Indies  is  stated  by  Temminck  to  paper  on  pigeons  is  well  worth  con- 
be  a  rock-pigeon  ;  but  I  am  informed  suiting. 


Chap.  VL  THEIR   PARENTAGE.  I93 

spot  on  the  two  sides,  but  chiefly  on  the  outer  side,  of  each  feather. 
The  wing-bars  in  the  true  rock-pigeon  and  in  the  chequered 
variety  are^  in  fact,  due  to  similar  though  larger  spots  symmetrically 
crossing  the  secondary  wing- feather  and  the  larger  coverts.  Hence 
the  chequering  arises  merely  from  an  extension  of  these  marks  to 
other  parts  of  the  plumage.  Chequered  birds  are  not  confined  to 
the  coasts  of  England ;  for  they  were  foujidby  Graba  at  Faroe  ;  and  ■ 
W.  Thompson  ^^  says  that  at  Islay  fully  half  the  wild  rock-pigtons 
were  chequered.  Colonel  King,  of  Hythe,  stocked  his  dovecot  with 
young  wild  birds  Avhich  he  himself  procured  from  nests  at  the 
Orkney  Islands ;  and  several  specimens,  kindly  sent  to  me  by  him, 
were  all  plainly  chequered.  As  we  thus  see  that  chequered  birds 
occur  mingled  with  the  true  rock-pigeon-  at  three  distinct  sites, 
namely,  Faroe,  the  Orkney  Islands,  and  Islay,  no  importance  can 
be  attached  to  this  natural  variation  in  the  j)lumage. 

Prince  C.  L.  Bonaparte,^^  a  great  divider  of  species,  enumerates, 
with  a  mark  of  interrogation,  as  distinct  from  G.  livia,  the  C.  tum'cola 
of  Italy,  the  G.  rupestris  of  Daouria,  and  the  G.  scliimperi  of  Abys- 
sinia ;  but  these  birds  differ  from  G.  livia  in  characters  of  the  most 
trifling  value.  In  the  British  Museum  there  is  a  chequered  pigeon, 
probably  the  G.  schimperi  of  Bonaparte,  from  Abyssinia.  To  these 
may  be  added  the  G.  gymnocydus  of  G.  R.  Gray  from  W.  Africa, 
which  is  slightly  more  distinct,  and  has  rather  more  naked  skin 
round  the  eyes  than  the  rock-pigeon  ;  but  from  information  given 
me  by  Dr.  Daniell,  it  is  doubtful  whether  this  is  a  wild  bird,  for 
dovecot-pigeons  (which  I  have  examined)  are  kept  on  the  coast  of 
Guinea. 

The  wild  rock^pigeon  of  India  {G.  intermedia  of  Strickland)  has 
been  more  generally  accepted  as  a  distinct  species.  It  differs  chiefly 
in  the  croup  being  blue  instead  of  snow-white ;  but  as  Mr.  Blyth 
informs  me,  the  tint  varies,  being  sometimes  albescent.  When  this 
form  is  domesticated  chequered  birds  appear,  just  as  occurs  in 
Europe  with  the  truly  wild  G.  livia.  Moreover  we  shall  immediately 
have  proof  that  the  blue  and  white  croup  is  a  highly  variable 
character ;  and  Bechstein  ^'*  asserts  that  with  dovecot-pigeons  in 
Germany  this  is  the  most  variable  of  all  the  characters  of  the 
plumage.  Hence  it  may  be  concluded  that  G.  intermedia  cannot  be 
ranked  as  specifically  distinct  from  G.  livin. 

In  Madeira  there  is  a  rock-pigeon  which  a  few  ornithologists  have 
suspected  to  be  distinct  from  G.  livia.  I  have  examined  numerous 
specimens  collected  by  Mr.  E.  V.  Harcourt  and  Mr.  Mason.  They 
are  rather  smaller  than  the  rock-pigeon  from  the  Shetland  Islands, 
and  their  beaks  are  plainly  thinner,  but  the  thickness  of  the  beak 
varied  in  the  several  siDecimens.     In  plumage  there  is  remarkable 


'2  '  Natural    History    of    Ireland,'       geons,'  '  Comptes  Rendus,*  1854-55. 
Birds,  vol.   ii.    (1850),    p.    11.     For  " '  Naturgeschichte.  Deutschlands, 

Graba,  see  previous  reference.  Band  iv.  1795,  s.  14. 

'''  'Coup-d'oeil  snr  I'Ordre  des  Pi- 
14 


194  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS  Chap.  VL 

diversity ;  some  specimens  are  identical  in  every  feather  (I  speak 
after  actual  comparison)  with  the  rock-pigeon  of  the  Shetland 
Islands  ;  others  are  chequered,  like  C.  offinis  from  the  cliffs  of 
England,  but  generally  to  a  greater  degree,  being  almost  black  over 
the  whole  back;  others  are  identical  with  the  so-called  C.  intermedia 
of  India  in  the  degree  of  blueness  of  the  croup ;  whilst  others  have 
this  part  very  pale  or  very  dark  blue,  and  are  likewise  chequered. 
So  much  variability  raises  a  strong  suspicion  that  these  birds  are 
domestic  pigeons  which  have  become  feral. 

From  these  facts  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  O.  livia,  affinis, 
intermedia,  and  the  forms  marked  with  an  interrogation  by  Bonaparte 
ought  all  to  be  included  under  a  single  species.  But  it  is  quite 
immaterial  whether  or  not  they  are  thus  ranked,  and  whether  some 
one  of  these  forms  or  all  are  the  progenitors  of  the  various  domestic 
kinds,  as  far  as  any  light  can  thus  be  thrown  on  the  differences 
between  the  more  strongly-marked  races.  That  common  dovecot- 
pigeons,  which  are  kept  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  are  descended 
from  one  or  from  several  of  the  above-mentioned  wild  varieties  of 
G.  livia,  no  one  who  compares  them  will  doubt.  But  before  making 
a  few  remarks  on  dovecot-pigeons,  it  should  be  stated  that  the  wild 
rock-pigeon  has  been  found  easy  to  tame  in  several  countries.  We 
nave  seen  that  Colonel  King  at  Hythe  stocked  his  dovecot  more 
than  twenty  years  ago  with  young  wild  birds  taken  at  the  Orkney 
Islands,  and  since  then  they  have  greatly  multiplied.  The  accurate 
Macgillivray  ^^  asserts  that  he  completely  tamed  a  wild  rock-pigeon 
in  the  Hebrides  ;  and  several  accounts  are  on  records  of  these  pigeons 
having  bred  in  dovecots  in  the  Shetland  Islands.  In  India,  as 
Captain  Hutton  informs  m.e,  the  wild  rock-pigeon  is  easily  tamed, 
and  breeds  readily  with  the  domestic  kind  ;  and  Mr.  Blyth  ^^  asserts 
that  wild  birds  come  frequently  to  the  dovecots  and  mingle  freely 
with  their  inhabitants.  In  the  ancient '  Ayeen  Akbery '  it  is  written 
that,  if  a  few  wild  pigeons  be  taken,  "  they  are  speedily  joined  by  a 
thousand  others  of  their  kind." 

Dovecot-pigeons  are  those  which  are  kept  in  dovecots  in  a  semi- 
domesticated  state  ;  for  no  special  care  is  taken  of  them,  and  they 
procure  their  own  food,  except  during  the  severest  weather.  In 
England,  and,  judging  from  MM.  Boitard  and  Corbie's  work,  in 
France,  the  common  dovecot-pigeon  exactly  resembles  the  chequered 


'^  '  History  of  British  Birds,'  vol.  i.  rock-pigeon  came  and  settled  in  his 
pp.  275-284.  Mr.  Andrew  Duncan  dovecot  in  Balta  Sound  in  the  Shet- 
tanied  a  rock-pigeon  in  the  Shetland  land  Islands,  and  bred  with  his 
Islands.  Mr.  James  Barclay,  and  Mr.  pigeons  ;  he  has  also  given  me  other 
Smith  of  Uvea  Sound,  both  say  that  instances  of  the  wild  rock-pigeon 
the  wild  rock-pigeon  can  be  easily  having  been  taken  young  and  breed- 
tamed  ;    and    the    former    gentleman  ing  in  captivity. 

■•isserts   that    the  tamed  birds  breed  ^^  'Annals     and     Mag.     of     Nat. 

four    times    a   year.      Dr.    Lawrence  History,'  vol.  xix.  1847,  p.  103,  anrl 

■Edmondstone  informs  me  that  a  wild  vol.  for  1857,  p.  512. 


Chap.  VI.  THEIR   PARENTAGE.  195 

variety  of  C.  livia  ;  but  I  have  seen  dovecots  brought  from  Yorkshire 
without  any  trace  of  chequering,  like  the  wild  rock-pigeon  of  the 
Shetland  Islands.  The  chequered  dovecots  from  the  Orkney  Islands, 
after  having  been  domesticated  by  Colonel  King  for  more  than 
twenty  years,  differed  shghtly  from  each  other  in  the  darkness  of 
their  plumage  and  in  the  thickness  of  their  beaks  ;  the  thinnest  beak 
being  rather  thicker  than  the  thickest  one  in  the  Madeira  birds.  In 
Germany,  according  toBechstein,  the  common  dovecot- pigeon  is  not 
chequered.  In  India  they  often  become  chequered,  and  sometimes 
pied  with  white ;  the  croup  also,  as  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  Ely th^ 
becomes  nearly  white.  I  have  received  from  Sir.  J.  Brooke  some 
dovecot-pigeons,  which  originally  came  from  the  S.  Natunas  Islands 
in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  which  had  been  crossed  with  the 
Singapore  dovecots :  they  were  small  and  the  darkest  variety  was 
extremely  like  the  dark  chequered  variety  with  a  blue  croup  from 
Madeira ;  but  the  beak  was  not  so  thin,  though  decidedly  thinner 
than  in  the  rock-pigeon  from  the  Shetland  Islands.  A  dovecot- 
pigeon  sent  to  me  by  Mr.  Swinhoe  from  Foochow,  in  China,  was 
likewise  rather  small,  but  differed  in  no  other  respect.  I  have 
also  received  through  the  kindness  of  Dr.  Daniell,  four  living  dovecot- 
pigeons  from  Sierra  Leone,"  these  were  fully  as  large  as  the 
Shetland  rock-pigeon,  with  even  bulkier  bodies.  In  plumage  some 
of  them  were  identical  with  the  Shetland  rock  pigeon,  but  with  the 
metallic  tints  apparently  rather  more  brilliant  ;  others  had  a  blue 
croup,  and  resembled  the  chequered  variety  of  C.  intermedia  of 
India ;  and  some  were  so  much  chequered  as  to  be  nearly  black. 
In  these  four  birds  the  beak  differed  slightly  in  length,  but  in  all  it 
was  decidedly  shorter,  more  massive,  and  stronger  than  in  the  wild 
rock-pigeon  from  the  Shetland  Islands,  or  in  the  English  dovecot. 
"When  the  beaks  of  these  African  pigeons  were  compared  with  the 
thinnest  beaks  of  the  wild  Madeira  specimens,  the  contrast  was  great ; 
the  former  being  fully  one-third  thicker  in  a  vertical  direction 
than  the  latter ;  so  that  any  one  at  first  would  have  felt  inclined  to 
rank  these  birds  as  specifically  distinct ;  yet  so  perfectly  graduated  a 
series  could  be  formed  between  the  above-mentioned  varieties,  that 
it  was  obviously  impossible  to  separate  them. 

To  sum  np  :  the  wild  Columha  livia,  including  under  this 
name  C.  affinis,  intermedia,  and  the  other  still  more  closel}"- 
affined  geographical  races,  has  avast  range  from  the  southern 
coast  of  Norway  and  the  Faroe  Islands  to  the  shores  of  tho 
Mediterranean,  to  Madeira  and  the  Canary  Islands,  to  Abys- 
sinia, India,  and  Japan.     It  varies  greatly  in  plumage,  being 

*^  Domestic  pigeons  of  the  common  published  in   1746;  they  are  said,  in 

kind  are  mentioned  as  being  pretty  accordance  with  the  name  which  they 

numerous  in  John  Barbut's  '  Descrip-  bear,  to  have  been  imported, 
tion  of  the  Coast  cf  Guinea  '  (p.  215), 


196  DOMESTIC   pigeons:  Chap.  VI. 

in  many  places  cliequered  with  black,  and  having  eitlier  a 
white  or  blue  croup  or  loins ;  it  varies  also  slightly  in  the 
size  of  the  beak  and  body.  Dovecot-pigeons,  which  no  one 
disputes  are  descended  from  one  or  more  of  the  above  wild 
forms,  present  a  similar  but  greater  range  of  variation  in 
plumage,  in  the  size  of  body,  and  in  the  length  and  thickness 
of  the  beak.  There  seems  to  be  some  relation  between  the 
croup  being  blue  or  white,  and  the  temperature  of  the 
country  inhabited  by  both  wild  and  dovecot  pigeons;  for 
nearly  all  the  dovecot-pigeons  in  the  northern  parts  of  Europe 
have  a  white  croup,  like  that  of  the  wild  Euro2)ean  rock- 
j)igeon  ;  and  nearly  all  the  dovecot-pigeons  of  India  have  a 
blue  croup  like  that  of  the  wild  C.  intermedia  of  India.  As  in 
various  countries  the  wild  rock-pigeon  has  been  found  easy  to 
tame,  it  seems  extremely  probable  that  the  dovecot-pigeons 
throughout  the  world  are  the  descendants  of  at  least  two  and 
perhaps  more  wild  stocks ;  but  these,  as  we  have  just  seen, 
cannot  be  ranked  as  specifically  distinct. 

With  respect  to  the  variation  of  C.  livia,  we  may  without 
fear  of  contradiction  go  one  step  further.  Tiiose  pigeon- 
fanciers  who  believe  that  all  the  chief  races,  such  as  Carriers, 
Pouters,  Fantails,  &c.,  are  descended  from  distinct  aboriginal 
Btocks,  3^et  admit  that  the  so-called  toy-pigeons,  which  differ 
from  the  rock-pigeon  in  little  except  colour,  are  descended 
from  this  bird.  By  toy-pigeons  are  meant  such  birds  as  Spots, 
Nuns,  Helmets,  Swallows,  Priests,  Monks,  Porcelains,  Swa- 
bians,  Archangels,  Breasts,  Shields,  and  others  in  Europe,  and 
many  others  in  India.  It  would  indeed  be  as  puerile  to 
suppose  that  all  these  birds  are  descended  from  so  many 
distinct  wild  stocks  as  to  suppose  this  to  be  the  case  with  the 
many  varieties  of  the  gooseberry,  heartsease,  or  dahlia.  Yet 
these  kinds  all  breed  true,  and  many  of  them  include  sub- 
varieties  which  likewise  transmit  their  character  truly. 
They  differ  greatly  from  each  other  and  from  the  rock-pigeon 
in  plumage,  slightly  in  size  and  proportions  of  body,  in  size 
of  feet,  and  in  the  length  and  thickness  of  their  beaks.  They 
differ  from  each  other  in  these  respects  more  than  do  dove- 
cot-pigeons. Although  we  may  safely  admit  that  dovecot- 
pigeons,  wliich  vary  slightly,  and  that  toy-pigeons,  which 


CiiAP.  VI.  THEIR    PAEENTAGE.  197 

vary  in  a  greater  degree  in  accordance  with  their  more  higlily- 
domesticated  condition,  are  descended  from  C.  livia,  including 
under  this  name  the  above  -  enumerated  wild  geographical 
races ;  yet  the  question  becomes  far  more  difficult  when  we 
consider  the  eleven  principal  races,  most  of  which  have  been 
profoundly  modified.  It  can,  however,  be  shown,  by  indirect 
evidence  of  a  perfectly  conclusive  nature,  that  these  principal 
races  are  not  descended  from  so  many  wild  stocks  ;  and  if  this 
be  once  admitted,  few  will  dispute  that  they  are  the  descen- 
dants of  C.  livia,  which  agrees  with  them  so  closely  in  habits 
and  in  most  characters,  which  varies  in  a  state  of  nature,  and 
which  has  certainly  undergone  a  considerable  amount  of 
variation,  as  in  the  toy-pigeons.  We  shall  moreover  presently 
see  how  eminently  favourable  circumstances  have  been  for  a 
great  amount  of  modification  in  the  more  carefully  tended 
breeds. 

The  reasons  for  concluding  that  the  several  principal  races 
are  not  descended  from  so  many  aboriginal  and  unknown 
i^tocks  may  be  grouped  under  the  following  six  heads  : — Firstly, 
if  the  eleven  chief  races  have  not  arisen  from  the  variation  of 
some  one  species,  together  with  its  geographical  races,  they 
must  be  descended  from  several  extremel}^  distinct  aboriginal 
species ;  for  no  amount  of  crossing  between  only  six  or  seven 
wild  forms  could  produce  races  so  distinct  as  Pouters,  Carriers, 
Runts,  Fan  tails,  Turbits,  Short-faced  Tumblers,  Jacobins,  and 
Trumpeters.  How  could  crossing  produce,  for  instance,  a 
Pouter  or  a  Fantail,  unless  the  two  supposed  aboriginal 
parents  possessed  the  remarkable  characters  of  these  breeds  ? 
I  am  aware  that  some  naturalists,  following  Pallas,  believe 
that  crossing  gives  a  strong  tendency  to  variation,  indepen- 
dently of  the  characters  inherited  from  either  parent.  '1  hey 
believe  that  it  would  be  easier  to  raise  a  Pouter  or  Fantail 
pigeon  from  crossing  two  distinct  species,  neither  of  which 
possessed  the  characters  of  these  races,  than  from  any  single 
species.  I  can  find  few  facts  in  support  of  this  doctrine,  and 
believe  in  it  only  to  a  limited  degree  ;  but  in  a  future  chapter 
1  shall  have  to  recur  to  this  subject.  For  our  present  purpose 
the  point  is  not  material.  The  question  which  concerns  us  is, 
whether  or  not  many  new  and  important  characters  havo 


198  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS :  CiiA}'.  TI. 

QTisen  since  man  first  domesticated  the  pigeon.  On  the 
ordinary  view,  variability  is  due  to  changed  conditions  of  life ; 
on  the  Pallasian  doctrine,  variability,  or  the  appearance  of 
new  characters,  is  due  to  some  mysterious  effect  from  the  cross- 
ing of  two  species,  neither  of  which  possesses  the  characters 
in  question.  In  some  few  instances  it  is  possible  that  well- 
marked  races  may  have  been  formed  by  crossing ;  for  instance, 
a  Barb  might  perhaps  be  formed  by  a  cross  between  a  long- 
beaked  Carrier,  having  large  eye-wattles,  and  some  short- 
beaked  pigeon.  That  many  races  have  been  in  some  degree 
modified  by  crossing,  and  that  certain  varieties  which  are 
distinguished  only  by  peculiar  tints  have  arisen  fiom  crosses 
between  differently-coloured  A^arieties,  is  almost  certain.  On 
the  doctrine,  therefore,  that  the  chief  races  owe  their  differ- 
ences to  their  descent  from  distinct  species,  we  must  admit 
that  at  least  eight  or  nine,  oi'  more  probably  a  dozen  species, 
all  having  the  same  habit  of  breeding  and  roosting  on  rocks 
and  living  in  society,  either  now  exist  somewhere,  or  formerly 
existed,  but  have  become  extinct  as  wild  birds.  Considering 
how  carefully  wild  pigeons  have  been  collected  throughout 
the  world,  and  what  conspicuous  birds  they  are,  especially 
when  frequenting  rocks,  it  is  extremely  improbable  that 
eight  or  nine  species,  which  were  long  ago  domesticated  and 
therefore  must  have  inhabited  some  anciently  known  country, 
should  still  exist  in  the  wild  state  and  be  unknown  to  orni- 
thologists. 

The  hypothesis  that  such  species  formerly  existed,  but  have 
become  extinct,  is  in  some  slight  degree  more  probable.  But 
the  extinction  of  so  many  species  within  the  historical  period  is 
a  bold  hypothesis,  seeing  how  little  influence  man  has  had  in 
exterminating  the  common  rock-pigeon,  which  agrees  in  all  its 
habits  of  life  with  the  domestic  races.  The  C.  livia  now  exists 
and  flourishes  on  the  small  northern  islands  of  Faroe,  on  many 
islands  off  the  coast  of  Scotland,  on  Sardinia,  and  the  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean,  and  in  the  centre  of  India.  Fanciers  have 
sometimes  imagined  that  the  several  supj)osed  parent -species 
were  originally  confined  to  small  islands,  and  thus  might 
readily  have  been  exterminated ;  but  the  facts  just  given  do  not 
favour  the  probabilit}^  of  their  extinction,  even  on  small  islands. 


Chap.  VI.  THEIR   PARENTAGE.  199 

Kor  is  it  probable,  from  what  is  known  of  the  distribuiion  of 
birds,  that  the  islands  near  Europe  should  have  been  inhabited 
by  peculiar  species  of  pigeons;  and  if  we  assume  that  distant 
oceanic  islands  were  the  homes  of  the  supposed  parent-species, 
we  must  remember  that  ancient  voyages  were  tediously  slow, 
and  that  ships  were  then  ill-provided  with  fresh  food,  so  that 
it  would  not  have  been  easy  to  bring  home  living  birds, 
I  have  said  ancient  voyages,  for  nearly  all  the  races  of  the 
pigeon  were  known  before  the  year  1600,  so  that  the  supjoosed 
wild  species  must  have  been  captured  and  domesticated  before 
that  date. 

Secondly. — The  doctiine  that  the  chief  domestic  races  are 
descended  from  several  aboriginal  species,  implies  that  several 
species  were  formerly  so  thoroughly  domesticated  as  to  breed 
readily  when  confined.  Although  it  is  easy  to  tame  most  wild 
birds,  experience  shows  us  that  it  is  difficult  to  get  them  to 
breed  freely  under  confinement;  although  it  must  be  owned  that 
this  is  less  difficult  with  pigeons  than  with  most  other  birds. 
During  the  last  two  or  three  hundred  j^ears,  many  birds  have 
been  kept  in  aviaries,  but  hardly  one  has  been  added  to  our 
list  of  thoroughly  reclaimed  species  :  yet  on  the  above  doctrine 
we  must  admit  that  in  ancient  times  nearl}^  a  dozen  kinds 
of  pigeons,  now  unknown  in  the  wild  state,  were  thoroughly 
domesticated. 

Thirdly. — Most  of  our  domesticated  animals  have  run  wild 
in  various  parts  of  the  world ;  but  birds,  owing  apparenily  to 
their  partial  loss  of  the  power  of  flight,  less  often  than  quad- 
rupeds. Nevertheless  I  have  met  with  accounts  showing  that 
the  common  fowl  has  become  feral  in  South  America  and 
perhaps  in  West  Africa,  and  on  several  islands :  the  turkey 
was  at  one  time  almost  feral  on  the  banks  of  the  Parana ;  and 
the  Guinea-fowl  has  become  perfectly  wild  at  Ascension 
and  in  Jamaica.  In  this  latter  island  the  j^eacock,  also, 
"  has  become  a  maroon  bird."  The  common  duck  wanders 
from  its  home  and  becomes  almost  wild  in  ISorfolk.  Hybrids 
between  the  common  and  musk-duck  which  have  become  wild 
have  been  shot  in  North  America,  Belgium,  and  near  the 
Caspian  Sea.  The  goose  is  said  to  have  run  wild  in  La  Plata. 
The    common   dovecot  -  pigeon   has    become   wild    at   Juan 


200  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS  :  Chap.  YL 

Fernandez,  Norfolk  Island,  Ascension,  probably  at  Madeira,  on 
tlie  shores  of  Scotland,  and,  as  is  asserted,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Hudson  in  North  America. ^^  But  how  different  is  the  case, 
when  we  turn  to  the  eleven  chief  domestic  races  of  the  pigeon, 
which  are  supposed  by  some  authors  to  be  descended  from  so 
many  distinct  species !  no  one  has  ever  pretended  that  any 
one  of  these  races  has  been  found  wild  in  any  quarter  of  the 
world ;  yet  the}^  have  been  transported  to  all  countries,  and 
some  of  them  must  have  been  carried  back  to  their  native 
homes.  On  the  view  that  all  the  races  are  the  product  of 
variation,  we  can  understand  why  they  have  not  become  feral, 
for  the  great  amount  of  modification  which  they  have  under- 
gone shows  how  long  and  how  thoroughly  they  have  been 
domesticated  ;  and  this  would  unfit  them  for  a  wild  life. 

Fourthly. — If  it  be  assumed  that  the  characteristic  differences 
between  the  various  domestic  races  are  due  to  descent  from 
several  aboriginal  species,  we  must  conclude  that  man  chose 
for  domestication  in  ancient  times,  either  intentionally  or  by 
chance,  a  most  abnormal  set  of  pigeons  ;  for  that  species 
resembling  such  birds  as  Pouters,  Fantails,  Carriers,  Barbs, 
Short-faced  Tumblers,  Turbits,  &c.,  would  be  in  the  highest 
degree  abnormal,  as  compared  with  all  the  existing  members 
of  the  great  pigeon  family,  cannot  be  doubted.  Thus  we 
should  have  to  believe  that  man  not  only  formerly  succeeded 
in  th()roughly  domesticating  several  highly  abnormal  species, 
but  that  these  same  species  have  since  all  become  extinct,  or 

**  With    respect   to  feral   pigeons  ducks,  see  Audubon's  '  American   Or- 

■ — for  Juan  Fernandez,  see  Bertero  in  nithology,'     and     Selys-Longchamp's 

'  Anual.  dcs  Sc.  Nat.,'  torn.  xxi.  p.  351,  '  Hybrides  dans  la  Famille  des  Ana- 

For   Norfolk    Islands,  see  Rev.  E.    S.  tides.'     For  the  goose,  Isidore  Geoftroy 

Dixon  in  the  '  Dovecote,'  1851,  p.  14,  St.-Hilaire, '  Hist.  Nat.  Gen.,'  torn.  iii. 

on  the  authority  of  Mr.  Gould.     For  p.  498.     For  guinea-fowls,  see  Gosse's 

Ascension  I  rely  on  MS.  information  'Naturalist's   Sojourn    in    Jamaica," 

given  me  by  Mr.   Layard.     For  the  p.  124;  and  his  'Birds  of  Jamaica, 

banks   of  the  Hudson,    see  Blyth   in  for    fuller     particulars.     1    sav/    thj 

'Annals  of  Nat.  Hist.,' vol.  xx.,  1857,  wild  guinea-fowl  in  Ascension.     For 

J).  511.  For  Scotland,  see  Macgillivray,  the  peacock,    see   'A    Week  at  Por<- 

'British  Birds,'  vol.  i.  p.  275;  also  Royal,'    by    a    competent    author] ty^ 

Thompson's   'Nat.    Hist,  of  Ireland,  Mr.  R.  Hill,  p.  42.     For  the  turkey 

Birds,'  vol.  ii.  p.  11.     For  ducks,  see  I  rely  on  oral  information;  I  ascer» 

Rev.     E.     S      Dixon,     '  Ornamental  tained  that  they  were  not  Curassows, 

Poultry,'  1847,  p.  122.     For  the  feral  With  respect  to  fowls  I  will  give  thtf 

hybrids  of  the    common  and  musk-  references  in  the  next  chapter. 


Chap.  YI.  THEIR  PARENTAGE.  201 

arc  at  least  now  "unknown.  This  double  accident  is  so  ex- 
tremely improbable  that  the  assumed  existence  of  so  man;y 
abnormal  species  would  require  to  be  supported  by  the 
strongest  evidence.  On  the  other  hand,  if  all  the  races  are 
descended  from  G.  livia,  we  can  understand,  as  will  hereafter 
be  more  fully  explained,  how  any  slight  deviation  in  structure 
which  first  appeared  would  continually  be  augmented  by  the 
preservation  of  the  most  strongly  marked  individuals ;  and  as 
the  power  of  selection  would  be  applied  according  to  man's 
fancy,  and  not  for  the  bird's  own  good,  the  accumulated 
amount  of  deviation  would  certainly  be  of  an  abnormal 
nature  in  comparison  with  the  structure  of  pigeons  living  in 
a  state  of  nature. 

I  have  already  alluded  to  the  remarkable  fact  that  the  cha 
racteristic  differences  between  the  chief  domestic  races  are 
eminently  variable ;  we  see  this  plainly  in  the  great  difference 
in  the  number  of  the  tail-feathers  in  the  Fan  tail,  in  the  deve- 
lopment of  the  crop  in  Pouters,  in  the  length  of  the  beak  in 
Tumblers,  in  the  state  of  the  wattle  in  Carriers,  &c.  If  these 
characters  are  the  result  of  successive  variations  added  together 
by  selection,  we  can  understand  why  they  should  be  so 
variable  :  for  these  are  the  very  parts  which  have  varied 
since  the  domestication  of  the  pigeon,  and  therefore  would  be 
likely  still  to  vary;  these  variations  moreover  have  been 
recently,  and  are  still  being  accumulated  by  man's  selection ; 
therefore  they  have  not  as  yet  become  firmly  fixed. 

Fiftlily. — All  the  domestic  races  pair  readily  together,  and, 
what  is  equally  important,  their  mongrel  offspring  are  per- 
fectly fertile.  To  ascertain  this  fact  I  made  many  experi- 
ments, which  are  given  in  the  note  below;  and  recently 
Mr.  Tegetmeier  has  made  similar  experiments  with  the  same 
result. ^^     The  accurate  Keumeister  asserts  that  when  dovecots 

^^  I  have  drawn  out  a  Ions;  table  of  doubtedly  have  thus  united  all.     The 

the  various  crosses  made  by  fanciers  case    of    five    distinct    breeds    beino- 

between  the  several  domestic  breeds  blended  together  with  unimpaired  fer- 

but  I  do  not  think  itworth  while  pub-  tility  is  important,   because  Gartner 

lishing.     I  have  myself  made  for  this  has  shown  that  it  is  a  very  general, 

special  purpose  many  crosses,  and  all  though  not,  as  he  thought,  universal 

were  perfectly  fertile.     I  have  united  rule,   that    complex    crosses   between 

In  one  bird  five  of  the  most  distinct  several  species  are  excessively  sterile, 

races,  and  with  patience  I  might  un-  I  have  met  with  only  two  or  three 


202 


DOMESTIC   PIGEONS 


Chap.  VI. 


are  crossed  with,  pigeons  of  any  other  breed,  the  mongrels  are 
extremely  fertile  and  hardy.^^  MM.  Boitai  d  and  Corbie  ^^  affirm, 
after  their  great  experience,  that  the  more  distinct  the  breeds 
are  which  are  crossed,  the  more  productive  are  their  mongrel 
offspring.  I  admit  that  the  doctrine  first  broached  by  Pallas 
is  highly  probable,  if  not  actually  proved,  namely,  that  closely 
allied  species,  which  in  a  state  of  nature  or  when  first  captured 
would  have  been  in  some  degree  sterile  if  crossed,  lose  this 
sterility  after  a  long  course  of  domestication  ;  yet  when  wo 
consider  the  great  difference  between  such  races  as  Pouters, 
Carriers,  Eunts,  Fantails,  Turbits,  Tumblers,  &c.,  the  fact  of 
their  perfect,  or  even  increased,  fertility  when  intercrossed  in 
the  most  complicated  manner  becomes  a  strong  argument  in 
i'avour  of  their  having  all  descended  from  a  single  species. 
This  argument  is  rendered  much  stronger  when  we  hear  (I 
append  in  a  note  ^^  all  the  cases  which  I  have  collected)  that 


cases  of  reported  sterility  in  the  off- 
spring of  certain  races  when  crossed. 
Pistor  ('  Das  Ganze  der  Feldtau- 
benzucht,'  1831,  s.  15)  asserts  that  the 
mongrels  from  Barbs  and  Fantails 
are  sterile  :  I  have  prov^ed  this  to  be 
erroneous,  not  only  by  crossing  those 
hybrids  with  several  other  hybrids  of 
the  same  parentage,  but  by  the  more 
severe  test  of  pairing  brother  and 
sister  hybrids  inter  se,  and  they  were 
perfectli/  fertile.  Temminck  has  stated 
('  Hi>t.  Nat.  Gen.  des  Pigeons,'  tom.  i. 
p.  197)  that  the  Turbit  or  Owl  will 
not  cross  readily  with  other  breeds : 
but  my  Turbits  crossed,  when  left  free 
with  Almond  Tumblers  and  with 
Trumpeters ;  the  same  thing  has 
occurred  (Rev.  E.  S.  Dixon.  'The 
Dovecot,'  p.  107)  between  Turbits  and 
Dovecots  and  Nuns.  I  have  crossed 
Turbits  with  Barbs,  as  has  M.  Boitard 
(p,  34),  who  says  the  hybrids  were 
Tory  fertile.  Hybrids  from  a  Turbit 
and  Fantail  have  been  known  to  ?jreed 
inter  se  (Riedel,  '  Taubenzucht,'  s.  25, 
and  Bechstein, '  Naturgesch.  Deutsch.' 
B.  iv.  s.  44.  Turbits  (Riedel,  s.  26) 
have  been  crossed  with  Pouters  and 
vrith   Jacobins,   and   with    a    hybrid 


.lacobin-trumpeter  (Riedel,  s.  27)* 
The  latter  author  has,  however,  made 
some  vague  statements  (s.  22)  on  the 
sterility  of  Turbits  when  crossed  with 
certain  other  crossed  breeds.  But  I 
have  little  doubt  that  the  Rev.  E.  S. 
Dixon's  explanation  of  such  statements 
is  correct,  viz.  that  individual  birds 
both  with  Turbits  and  other  creeds  are 
occasionally  sterile. 

^^  '  Das  Ganze  der  Taubenzucht/ 
s.  18. 

21  '  Les  Pigeons,'  &c.,  p.  35. 

"'  Domestic  pigeons  pair  readily 
with  the  allied  C.  oenas  (Bechstein, 
'  Naturgesch.  Deutschlands,'  B.  iv.  s. 
3)  ;  and  Mr.  Brent  has  made  the  same 
cross  several  times  in  England,  but  the 
young  were  very  apt  to  die  at  about 
ten  days  old ;  one  hybrid  which  he 
reared  (from  C.  cenas  and  a  male  Ant- 
werp Carrier)  paired  with  a  Dragon, 
but  never  laid  eggs.  Bechstein  fur- 
ther states  (s.  26)  that  the  domestic 
pigeon  will  cross  with  C.  palumbus^ 
Turtur  risoria  and  T.  vulgaris,  but 
nothing  is  said  of  the  fertility  of  the 
hybrids,  and  this  would  have  been 
mentioned  had  the  fact  been  ascer- 
tained.    In    the   Zoological    Gardens 


Chap.  VI. 


THEIR    PAEENTAGE. 


203 


hardly  a  single  well-ascertained  instance  is  known  of  hybrids 
between  two  true  sjoecies  of  pigeons  being  fertile,  inter  se,  or 
even  when  crossed  with  one  of  their  pure  parents. 

Sixthly. — Excluding  certain  important  characteristic  differ- 
ences, the  chief  races  agree  most  closely  both  with  each  other 
and  with  C.  livia  in  all  other  respects.  As  previously  observed, 
all  are  eminently  sociable ;  all  dislike  to  perch  or  roost,  and 
refuse  to  build  in  trees :  all  lay  two  eggs,  and  this  is  not  a 
universal  rule  with  the  Columbidas ;  all,  as  far  as  I  can  hear, 
require  the  same  time  for  hatching  their  eggs ;  all  can  endure 
the  same  great  range  of  climate  ;  all  prefer  the  same  food,  and 
are  passionately  fond  of  salt;  all  exhibit  (with  the  asserted 
exception  of  the  Finnikin  and  Turner  which  do  not  differ  much 
in  any  other  character)  the  same  jDeculiar  gestures  when  court- 
ing the  females ;  and  all  (with  the  exception  of  Trumpeters 


(MS.  report  to  me  from  Sir.  James 
Hunt)  a  male  hybrid  from  Turtur 
vulgaris  and  a  domestic  pigeon  "  paired 
with  several  different  species  of 
pigeons  and  doves,  but  none  of  the 
eggs  were  good."  Hybrids  from  G. 
certasand  gj/innophthalmos  were  sterile. 
In  Loudon's  '  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.'  vol. 
vii.  1834,  p.  154,  it  is  said  that  a  male 
hybrid  (from  Turtur  vulgaris  male, 
and  the  cream-coloured  2'.  risoria 
female)  paired  during  two  years  with 
a  female  T.  riioria,  and  the  latter  laid 
many  eggs,  out  all  were  sterile. 
MM.  Boitard  and  Corbie  ('  Les  Pigeons,' 
p.  235)  state  that  the  hybrids  from 
these  two  turtle-doves  are  invariably 
sterile  both  inter  se  and  with  either 
pure  parent.  The  experiment  was 
tried  by  M.  Corbie  "  avec  une  espece 
d'obstination ;"  and  likewise  by  M. 
Mauduyt,  and  by  M.  Vieillot.  Tem- 
minck  also  found  the  hybrids  from 
these  two  species  quite  barren.  There- 
fore, when  Bechstein  ('  Naturgesch. 
Deutschlands  Vogel,'  B.  4,  s.  101) 
asserts  that  the  hybrids  from  these 
two  turtle-doves  propagate  inter  se 
equally  well  with  pure  species,  and 
when  a  writer  in  the  '  Field '  news- 
paper (in  a  letter  dated  Nov.  10th, 
1853)  makes  a  similar   assertion,   it 


would  appear  that  there  must  be  some 
mistake  ;  though  what  the  mistake  is 
I  know  not,  as  Bechstein  at  least  must 
have  known  the  white  variety  of  T. 
risoria  :  it  would  be  an  unparalleled 
fact  if  the  same  two  species  sometimes 
produced  extremely  fertile,  and  some- 
times extremely  barren,  ofispring.  In 
the  MS.  report  from  the  Zoological 
Gardens  it  is  said  that  hybrids  from 
Turtur  vulgaris  and  suraiensis,  and 
from  T.  vulgaris  and  Ectopistcs  migr(u 
tortus,  were  sterile.  Two  of  the  latter 
male  hybrids  paired  with  their  pure 
parents,  viz.  Turtur  vulgaris  and  the 
hctopistes,  and  likewise  with  T.  risotna 
and  with  Columba  cenas,  and  many 
eggs  were  produced,  but  all  were 
barren.  At  Paris,  hybrids  have  been 
raised  (Isid.  Geoffrey  Saint-Hilaire, 
'Hist.  Nat.  Generale,'  torn.  iii.  p.  180) 
from  Turtur  auritus  with  T.  cam- 
hai.iensis  and  with  T.  suraiensis;  but 
nothing  is  said  of  their  fertilitv.  At 
the  Zoological  Gardens  of  London  the 
Goura  coronata  and  victoria;  produced 
a  hybrid  which  paired  with  the  pure 
G.  coronata,  and  laid  several  eggs,  but 
these  proved  barren.  In  1860  Columba 
gymnophfJtalmos  and  maculosa  pro- 
duced hybrids  in  these  same  gardens. 


204  DOMESTIC  PIGEONS  I  Chap.  VL 

and  Laugliers,  wliicli  likewise  do  not  differ  much  in  any  other 
character)  coo  in  the  same  peculiar  manner,  unlike  the  voice 
of  any  other  wild  pigeon.  All  the  coloured  breeds  display 
the  same  peculiar  metallic  tints  on  the  breast,  a  character  far 
from  general  with  pigeons.  Each  race  presents  nearly  the 
same  range  of  variation  in  colour ;  and  in  most  of  the  races 
wo  have  the  same  singular  correlation  between  the  develop- 
ment of  down  in  the  young  and  the  future  colour  of  plumage. 
All  have  the  proportional  length  of  their  toes,  and  of  their 
primary  wing-feathers,  nearly  the  same, — characters  which 
are  apt  to  differ  in  the  several  members  of  the  Columbidae. 
In  those  races  which  present  some  remarkable  deviation  of 
structure,  such  as  in  the  tail  of  Fantails,  crop  of  Pouters,  beak 
of  Carriers  and  Tumblers,  &c.,  the  other  parts  remain  nearly 
unaltered.  Now  every  naturalist  will  admit  that  it  would  be 
scarcely  possible  to  pick  out  a  dozen  natural  species  in  any 
family  which  should  agree  closely  in  habits  and  in  general 
structure,  and  jet  should  differ  greatly  in  a  few  characters 
alone.  This  fact  is  explicable  through  the  doctrine  of  natural 
selection ;  for  each  successive  modification  of  structure  in  each 
natural  species  is  preserved,  solely  because  it  is  of  service ; 
and  such  modifications  when  largely  accumulated  imply  a 
great  change  in  the  habits  of  life,  and  this  will  almost  cer- 
tainly lead  to  other  changes  of  structure  throughout  the  whole 
organization.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  several  races  of  the 
pigeon  have  been  produced  by  man  through  selection  and 
variation,  we  can  readily  understand  how  it  is  that  they 
should  still  all  resemble  each  other  in  habits  and  in  those 
many  characters  which  man  has  not  cared  to  modify,  whilst 
they  differ  to  so  prodigious  a  degree  in  those  parts  which 
have  struck  his  eye  or  pleased  his  fancy. 

Besides  the  points  above  enumerated,  in  which  all  the 
domestic  races  resemble  C.  livia  and  each  other,  there  is  one 
which  deserves  special  notice.  The  wild  rock-pigeon  is  of  a 
slaty-blue  colour ;  the  wings  are  crossed  by  two  bars  ;  the 
croup  varies  in  colour,  being  generally  white  in  the  pigeon 
of  Europe,  and  blue  in  that  of  India ;  the  tail  has  a  black  bar 
close  to  the  end,  and  the  outer  webs  of  the  outer  tail-feathers 
are  edged  with  white,  except  near  the  tips.    These  combined 


Chap.  VI. 


THEIR   REVERSTOX   IN    COLOUR. 


205 


characters  are  not  fonnd  in  any  wild  pigeon  besides  C.  livia, 
I  have  looked  carefully  through  the  great  collections  of 
pigeons  in  the  British  Musenm,  and  I  find  that  a  dark  bar  at 
the  end  of  the  tail  is  common ;  that  the  white  edging  to  the 
outer  tail-feathers  is  not  rare  ;  but  that  the  white  croup  is 
extremely  rare,  and  the  two  black  bars  on  the  wings  occur  in 
no  other  pigeon,  excepting  the  alpine  C.  leuconota  and  C. 
rupestris  of  Asia.  Now  if  we  turn  to  the  domestic  races,  it  is 
highly  remarkable,  as  an  eminent  fancier,  Mr.  Wicking, 
observed  to  me,  that,  whenever  a  blue  bird  appears  in  any 
race,  the  wings  almost  invariably  show  the  double  black  bars.'^^ 
The  primary  wing-feathers  may  be  white  or  black,  and  the 
whole  body  may  be  of  any  colour,  but  if  the  wing- coverts  are 
blue,  the  two  black  bars  are  sure  to  appear.  I  have  myself 
seen,  or  acquired  trustworthy  evidence,  as  given  below,^'^  of 


^^  There  is  one  exce})tion  to  the 
rule,  namely,  in  a  sub-variety  of  the 
Swallow  of  German  origin,  which  is 
figured  by  Neumeister,  and  was  shown 
to  me  by  Mr.  Wicking.  This  bird  is 
blue,  but  has  not  the  black  wing-bars  ; 
for  our  object,  however,  in  tracing  the 
descent  of  the  chief  races,  this  ex- 
::eption  signifies  the  less  as  the  Swallow 
approaches  closely  in  structure  to  C. 
livia.  In  many  sub-varieties  the  black 
bars  are  replaced  by  bars  of  various 
colours.  The  figures  given  by  Neu- 
meister are  sufficient  to  show  that,  if 
the  wings  alone  are  blue,  the  black 
wing-bars  appear. 

2*  I  have  observed  blue  birds  with 
all  the  above-mentioned  marks  in  the 
following  races,  which  seemed  to  be 
perfectly  pure,  and  were  shown  at 
various  exhibitions.  Pouters,  with 
the  double  black  wing-bars,  with 
white  croup,  dark  bar  to  end  of  tail, 
and  white  edging  to  outer  tail-feathers. 
Turbits,  with  all  these  same  characters. 
Fantails  with  the  same  ;  but  the  croup 
in  some  was  bluish  or  pure  blue.  Mr. 
Wicking  bred  blue  Fantails  from  two 
black  birds.  Carriers  (including  the 
Bagadotten  of  Neumeister)  with  all 
the  marks :  two  birds  which  I  ex- 
amined had  whito.  and  two  had  blue 


croups  ;  the  white  edging  to  the  outer 
tail-feathers  was  not  present  in  all. 
Mr.  Corker,  a  great  breeder,  assures 
me  that,  if  black  carriers  are  matched 
for  many  successive  generations,  tho 
offspring  become  first  ash-coloured, 
and  then  blue  with  black  wing-bars. 
KuDts  of  the  elongated  breed  had  the 
same  marks,  but  the  croup  was  pale 
blue ;  the  outer  tail-feathers  had 
white  edges.  Neumeister  figures  the 
great  Florence  Runt  of  a  blue  colour 
with  black  bars.  Jacobins  are  very 
rarely  blue,  but  I  have  received  au- 
thentic accounts  of  at  least  two  in- 
'  stances  of  the  blue  variety  with  black 
bars  having  appeared  in  England ; 
blue  Jacobins  were  bred  by  Mr.  Brent 
from  two  black  birds.  I  have  seen 
common  Tumblers,  both  Indian  and 
English,  and  Short-faced  Tumblers,  of 
a  blue  colour,  with  black  wing-bars, 
with  the  black  bar  at  the  end  of  the 
tail,  and  with  the  outer  tail-feathers 
edged  with  white ;  the  croup  in  all 
was  blue,  or  extremely  pale  blue, 
never  absolutely  white.  Blue  Barbs 
and  Trumpeters  seem  to  be  excessively 
rare  ;  but  Neumeister,  who  may  be 
implicitly  trusted,  figures  blue  varie- 
ties of  both,  with  black  wing-bars.  Mr. 
Brent  informs  me  that  he  has  seen  a 


206  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS :  Chap.  Y1 

blue  birds  with  black  bars  on  tlie  wing,  with  tlie  croup 
eitlier  white  or  very  pale  or  dark  blue,  with  the  tail  having 
a  terminal  black  bar,  and  with  the  outer  feathers  externally 
edged  with  white  or  ver}?-  pale  coloured,  in  the  following  races, 
which,  as  I  carefully  observed  in  each  case,  appeared  to  bo 
perfectly  true :  namely,  in  Pouters,  Fantails,  Tumblers, 
Jacobins,  Turbits,  Barbs,  Carriers,  Runts  of  three  distinct 
varieties,  Trumpeters,  Swallows,  and  in  many  other  toy- 
pigeons,  which  as  being  closely  allied  to  G.  livia,  are  not 
worth  enumerating.  Thus  we  see  that,  in  purely-bred  races 
of  every  kind  known  in  Europe,  blue  birds  occasionally  appear 
having  all  the  marks  which  characterise  G.  livia,  and  which 
concur  in  no  other  wild  species.  Mr.  Blyth,  also,  has  made 
the  same  observation  with  respect  to  the  various  domestic 
races  known  in  India. 

Certain  variations  in  the  plumage  are  equally  common  in 
the  wild  G.  livia,  in  dovecot-pigeons,  and  in  all  the  most 
highly  modified  races.  Thus,  in  all,  the  croup  varies  from 
white  to  blue,  being  most  frequently  white  in  Europe,  and 
very  generally  blue  in  India. ^^  We  have  seen  that  the  wild 
G.  livia  in  Europe,  and  dovecots  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
often  have  the  upper  wing-coverts  chequered  with  black; 
and  all  the  most  distinct  races,  when  blue,  are  occasionall} 
chequered  in  precisely  the  same  manner.  Thus  I  have  seen 
Pouters,  Fantails,  Carriers,  Turbits,  Tumblers  (Indian  and 
English),  Swallows,  Bald-pates,  and  other  toy-pigeons  blue 
and  chequered  ;  and  Mr.  Esquilant  has  seen  a  chequered  Eunt. 
I  bred  from  two  pure  blue  Tumblers  a  chequered  bird. 

The  facts  hitherto  given  refer  to  the  occasional  appearance 
in  pure  races  of  blue  birds  with  black  wing-bars,  and  likewise 

blue  Barb  ;  and  Mr.  H.  "Weir,  as  I  am  Madras.     A  slaty-blue  and  chequered 

informed    by    Mr.    Teget.ueier,    once  Nakshi  pigeon  has  some  white  feathers 

bred  a  silver  (which  means  very  pale  on  the  croup  alone.     In   some   other 

blue)  Barb  from  two  yellow  birds.  Indian  pigeons  there  were  a  few  white 

"  Mr.  Blyth  informs  me   that  all  feathers  confined  to  the  croup,  and  I 

the  domestic  races  in  India  have  the  have  noticed  the  ssme  fact  in  a  carrier 

croup  blue  ;  but  this  is  not  invariable,  from  Persia.     The  Java  Fantail  (im- 

for  1  posses:;  a  very  pale  blue  Simmali  ported  into  Amoy,  and    thence   sent 

pigeon  with  the  croup  perfectly  white,  me)  has  a  perfectly  white  croup. 
sent   to   mo  by    Sir    W.    Elliot    from 


Chap.  VI.  THEIR   REVERSION    IN   COLOUR.  207 

of  blue  and  chequered  birds ;  but  it  will  now  be  seen  that 
when  two  birds  belonging  to  distinct  races  are  crossed, 
neither  of  which  have,  nor  probably  have  had  during  many 
generations,  a  trace  of  blue  in  their  plumage,  or  a  trace  of 
wing-bars  and  the  other  characfferistic  marks,  they  very 
frequently  produce  mongrel  offsj^ring  of  a  blue  colour,  some- 
times chequered,  with  black  wing-bars,  &c. ;  or  if  not  of  a 
blue  colour,  yet  with  the  several  characteristic  marks  more 
or  less  plainly  developed.  I  was  led  to  investigate  this 
subject  from  MM.  Boitard  and  Corbie  ^^  having  asserted  that 
from  crosses  between  certain  breeds  it  is  rare  to  get  anything 
but  bisets  or  dovecot  pigeons,  which,  as  we  know,  are  blue 
birds  with  the  usual  characteristic  marks.  We  shall  here- 
after see  that  this  subject  possesses,  independently  of  our 
present  object,  considerable  interest,  so  that  I  will  give  the 
results  of  my  own  trials  in  full.  I  selected  for  experiment 
races  which,  when  pure,  very  seldom  produce  birds  of  a  blue 
colour,  or  have  bars  on  their  wings  and  tail. 

The  Nun  is  white,  with  the  head,  tail,  and  primary  wing- 
feathers  black;  it  is  a  breed  which  was  established  as  long- 
ago  as  the  year  1600.  I  crossed  a  male  Nun  with  a  female 
red  common  Tumbler,  which  latter  variety  generally  breeds 
true.  Thus  neither  parent  had  a  trace  of  blue  in  the  plumage, 
or  of  bars  on  the  wing  and  tail.  I  should  premise  that 
common  Tumblers  are  rarely  blue  in  England.  From  the 
above  cross  I  reared  several  young :  one  was  red  over  the 
whole  back,  but  with  the  tail  as  blue  as  that  of  the  rock- 
pigeon  ;  the  terminal  bar,  however,  was  absent,  but  the  outer 
feathers  were  edged  with  white :  a  second  and  third  nearly 
resembled  the  first,  but  the  tail  in  both  presented  a  trace  of 
the  bar  at  the  end :  a  fourth  was  brownish,  and  the  wings 
showed  a  trace  of  the  double  bar :  a  fifth  was  pale  blue  over 
the  whole  breast,  back,  croup,  and  tail,  but  the  neck  and 
primary  wing-feathers  were  reddish ;  the  wings  presented 
two  distinct  bars  of  a  red  colour  ;  the  tail  was  not  barred,  but 
the  outer  feathers  were  edged  with  white.  I  crossed  this 
last  curiously  coloured  bird  with  a  black  mongrel  of  com- 
plicated descent,  namely,  from   a  black   Barb,  a  Spot,  and 

'*  '  Les  Pigeons,'  &c.,  p.  37. 


208  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS !  Chap.  VI. 

Almond-tumbler,  so  that  the  two  young  birds  produced  from 
this  cross  included  the  blood  of  five  varieties,  none  of  which 
had  a  trace  of  blue  or  of  wing  and  tail-bars  :  one  of  the  two 
young  birds  was  brownish-black,  with  black  wing-bars ;  the 
other  was  reddish-dun,  with  reddish  wing-bars,  paler  than 
the  rest  of  the  body,  with  the  croup  pale  blue,  the  tail  bluish 
with  a  trace  of  the  terminal  bar. 

Mr.  Eaton  2^  matched  two  Short-faced  Tumblers,  namely,  a 
splash  cock  and  kite  hen  (neither  of  which  are  blue  or  barred), 
and  from  the  first  nest  he  got  a  perfect  blue  bird,  and  from  the 
second  a  silver  or  pale  blue  bird,  both  of  which,  in  accordance 
with  all  analogy,  no  doubt  presented  the  usual  characteristic 
marks. 

I  crossed  two  male  black  Barbs  with  two  female  red  Spots. 
These  latter  have  the  whole  body  and  wings  white,  with  a 
spot  on  the  forehead,  the  tail  and  tail-coverts  red ;  the  race 
existed  at  least  as  long  ago  as  1676,  and  now  breeds  perfectly 
true,  as  was  known  to  be  the  case  in  the  year  1735.2^  Barbs 
are  uniformly-coloured  birds,  with  rarely  even  a  trace  of  bars 
on  the  wing  or  tail ;  they  are  known  to  breed  very  true.  The 
mongrels  thus  raised  were  black  or  nearly  black,  or  dark  or 
pale  brown,  sometimes  slightly  piebald  with  white :  of  these 
birds  no  less  than  six  presented  double  wing-bars ;  in  two 
the  bars  were  conspicuous  and  quite  black ;  in  seven  some 
white  feathers  appeared  on  the  croup ;  and  in  two  or  three 
there  was  a  trace  of  the  terminal  bar  to  the  tail,  but  in  none 
were  the  outer  tail-feathers  edged  with  white. 

I  crossed  black  Barbs  (of  two  excellent  strains)  with  purely- 
bred,  snow-white  Fantails.  The  mongrels  were  generally 
quite  black,  with  a  few  of  the  primary  wing  and  tail  feathers 
white :  others  were  dark  reddish-brown,  and  others  snow- 
wliite :  none  had  a  trace  of  wing-bars  or  of  the  white  croup, 
I  then  paired  together  two  of  these  mongrelsi,  namely,  a 
brown  and  black  bird,  and  their  offspring  displayed  wing- 
bars,  faint,  but  of  a  darker  brown  than  the  rest  of  body.  In  a 
second  brood  from  the  same  parents  a  brown  bird  was 
produced,  wdth  several  white  feathers  confined  to  the  croup. 

2^  'Treatise  on   Pigeons,'  1858,  p.  ^8  j_  jjoo^e's 'ColumbariuTn,' 1735; 

145.  m  J.  M.  Eaton's  edition,  1852,  p.  71. 


Chap.  YI.  THEIK   REVEESION   IN    COLOUR.  209 

I  crossed  a  male  dun  Dragon  belonging  to  a  family  which 
had  been  dun-coloured  without  wing-bars  during  sevf;ral 
generations,  with  a  uniform  red  Barb  (bred  from  two  black 
Barbs)  ;  and  the  offspring  presented  decided  but  faint  traces 
of  wing-bars.  I  crossed  a  uniform  red  male  Eunt  with  a 
White  trumpeter ;  and  the  offspring  had  a  slaty-blue  tail  wit  h 
a  bar  at  the  end,  and  with  the  outer  feathers  edged  with 
white.  I  also  crossed  a  female  black  and  white  checjuered 
Trumpeter  (of  a  different  strain  from  the  last)  with  a  male 
Almond- tumbler,  neither  of  which  exhibited  a  trace  of  blue, 
or  of  the  white  croup,  or  of  the  bar  at  end  of  tail :  nor  is  it 
probable  that  the  progenitors  of  these  tw^o  birds  had  for 
many  generations  exhibited  any  of  these  characters,  for  I 
have  never  even  heard  of  a  blue  Trumpeter  in  this  country, 
and  my  Almond-tumbler  was  purely  bred  ;  yet  the  tail  of  this 
mongrel  was  bluish,  with  a  broad  black  bar  at  the  end,  and 
the  croup  was  perfectly  white.  It  may  be  observed  in  several 
of  these  cases,  that  the  tail  first  shows  a  tendency  to  become 
by  reversion  blue  ;  and  this  fact  of  the  persistency  of  colour  in 
the  tail  and  tail-coverts  ^^  will  surprise  no  one  who  has  attended 
to  the  crossing  of  pigeons. 

The  last  case  which  I  will  give  is  the  most  curious.  I 
paired  a  mongrel  female  Barb-fantail  with  a  mongrel  male 
Barb-spot;  neither  of  which  mongrels  had  the  least  blue 
about  them.  Let  it  be  remembered  that  blue  Barbs  are 
excessively  rare  ;  that  Spots,  as  has  been  already  stated,  were 
perfectly  characterised  in  the  year  1676,  and  breed  perfectly 
true ;  this  likewise  is  the  case  with  white  Fantails,  so  much 
so  that  I  have  never  heard  of  white  Fantails  throwing  any 
other  colour.  Nevertheless  the  offspring  from  the  above  two 
mongrels  was  of  exactly  the  same  blue  tint  as  that  of  the 
wild  rock-pigeon  from  the  Shetland  Islands  over  the  whole 

^^  I  could  sjive  numerous  examples  ;  grey.     Another  mongrel  whose  four 

two  will   suffice.     A  mongrel,  whose  grandparents  were  a  red  Ruut,  white 

four  grandparents  were  a  white  Turbit,  Trumpeter,  white    Fantail,   and    the 

white  Trumpeter,  white  Fantail,  and  same  blue  Pouter,  was  pure  white  tal 

blue     Pouter,    was    white    all     over,  over,  except  the  tail  and  upper  aill- 

except  a  very  few  feathers  about  the  coverts,  which   were   paie  fawn,  nnd 

head  and  on  the  wings,  but  the  whole  except    the    fointest   trace  of  double 

Uiil  and  tail-coverts  were  dark  bluish-  wing-bars  of  the  same  pale  fawn  tint 

15 


210  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS  I  Chap.  VL 

back  and  wings;  the  double  black  wing-bars  were  equally 
conspicuous ;  the  tail  was  exactly  alike  in  all  its  characters, 
and  the  croup  was  pure  white  ;  the  head,  however,  was  tinted 
with  a  shade  of  red,  evidently  derived  from  the  Spot,  and  wap 
of  a  paler  blue  than  in  the  rock-pigeon,  as  was  the  stomach. 
So  that  two  black  Barbs,  a  red  Spot,  and  a  white  Fan  tail,  as 
the  four  purely-bred  grandparents,  produced  a  bird  exhibiting 
the  general  blue  colour,  together  with  every  characteristic 
mark,  the  wild  Columha  livia. 

With  respect  to  crossed  breeds  frequently  producing  blue 
birds  chequered  with  black,  and  resembling  in  all  respects 
both  the  dovecot-pigeon  and  the  chequered  wild  variety  of 
the  rock-pigeon,  the  statement  before  referred  to  by  MM. 
Boitard  and  Corbie  would  almost  suffice;  but  I  will  give 
three  instances  of  the  appearance  of  such  birds  from  crosses 
in  which  one  alone  of  the  parents  or  great-grandparents  was 
blue,  but  not  chequered.  I  crossed  a  male  blue  Turbit  with  a 
snow-white  Trumpeter,  and  the  following  year  with  a  dark, 
leaden-brown,  Short-faced  Tumbler ;  the  offspring  from  the 
first  cross  were  as  perfectly  chequered  as  any  dovecot-pigeon ; 
and  from  the  second,  so  much  so  as  to  be  nearly  as  black  as 
the  most  darkly  chequered  rock-pigeon  from  Madeira.  Another 
bird,  whose  great-grandparents  were  a  white  Trumpeter,  a 
white  Fantail,  a  white  Eed-spot,  a  red  Eunt,  and  a  blue  Pouter, 
was  slaty-blue  and  chequered  exactly  like  a  dovecot-pigeon. 
I  may  here  add  a  remark  made  to  me  by  Mr.  Wicking,  who 
has  had  more  experience  than  any  other  person  in  England  in 
breeding  pigeons  of  various  colours  :  namely,  that  when  a  blue, 
or  a  blue  and  chequered  bird,  having  black  wing-bars,  once 
appears  in  any  race  and  is  allowed  to  breed,  these  characters 
are  so  strongly  transmitted  that  it  is  extremely  difficult  to 
eradicate  them. 

What,  then,  are  we  to  conclude  from  this  tendency  in  all 
the  chief  domestic  races,  bolh  when  purely  bred  and  more 
especiail}^  when  intercrossed,  to  produce  offspring  of  a  blue 
colour,  with  the  same  characteristic  marks,  varying  in  the 
same  manner,  as  in  Columbia  livia  f  If  we  admit  that  these 
races  are  all  descended  from  0.  livia,  no  breeder  will  doubt 
that  the  occasional  appearance  of  blue  birds  thus  characterised 


Chap.  VI.  THEIR    REVERSION    IN   COLOUR.  211 

is  accounted  for  on  the  well-known  principle  of  "throwing 
back  "  or  reversion.  Why  crossing  should  give  so  strong  a 
tendency  to  reversion,  we  do  not  with  certainty  know ;  but 
abundant  evidence  of  this  fact  will  be  given  in  the  following 
chapters.  It  is  probable  that  I  might  have  bred  even  for 
a  century  pure  black  Barbs,  Spots,  Nuns,  white  Fantails, 
Trumpeters,  &c.,  without  obtaining  a  single  blue  or  barred 
bird ;  yet  by  crossing  these  breeds  I  reared  in  the  first  and 
second  generation,  during  the  course  of  only  three  or  four 
years,  a  considerable  number  of  young  birds,  more  or  less 
plainly  coloured  blue,  and  with  most  of  the  characteristic 
marks.  When  black  and  white,  or  black  and  red  birds,  are 
crossed,  it  would  appear  that  a  slight  tendency  exists  in  both 
parents  to  produce  blue  offspring,  and  that  this,  when  com- 
bined, overpowers  the  separate  tendency  in  either  parent  to 
produce  black,  or  white,  or  red  offspring. 

If  we  reject  the  belief  that  all  the  races  of  the  pigeon  are 
the  modified  descendants  of  C.  lida,  and  suppose  that  they 
are  descended  from  several  aboriginal  stocks,  then  we  must 
choose  between  the  three  following  assumptions  :  firstly,  that 
at  least  eight  or  nine  species  formerly  existed  which  were 
aboriginally  coloured  in  various  ways,  but  have  since  varied 
in  exactly  the  same  manner  so  as  to  assume  the  colouring 
of  C.  livia  ;  but  this  assumption  throws  not  the  least  light  on 
the  appearance  of  such  colours  and  marks  when  the  races  are 
crossed.  Or  secondly,  we  may  assume  that  the  aboriginal 
species  were  all  coloured  blue,  and  had  the  wing-bars  and 
other  characteristic  marks  of  C.  livia, —  a  supposition  which  is 
highl}^  improbable,  as  besides  this  one  species  no  existing 
member  of  the  Columbidse  presents  these  combined  cha- 
racters ;  and  it  would  not  be  possible  to  find  any  other 
instance  of  several  species  identical  in  plumage,  yet  as 
different  in  important  points  of  structure  as  are  Pouters, 
Fantails,  Carriers,  TumMers,  &g.  Or  lastly,  we  may  assume 
that  all  the  races,  Mdiether  descended  from  C.  livia  or  from 
fecveral  aboriginal  species,  although  they  have  teen  bred 
with  so  much  care  and  are  so  highly  valued  by  fanciers,  have 
all  been  crossed  within  a  dozen  or  score  of  generations  with 
C.  livia,  and  have  thus  acquired  theii    tendency  to  produce 


212  "DOMESTTC   PIGEONS :  Chap.  \'1 

blue  birds  with  the  several  characteristic  marks.  I  have  said 
that  it  must  be  assumed  that  each  race  has  been  crossed  with 
G.  livia  within  a  dozen,  or,  at  the  utmost,  within  a  score  of 
generations ;  for  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  crossed 
offspring  ever  revert  to  one  of  their  ancestors  when  removed 
by  a  greater  number  of  generations.  In  a  breed  which  has 
been  crossed  only  once,  the  tendency  to  reversion  will 
naturally  become  less  and  less  in  the  succeeding  generations, 
as  in  each  there  will  be  less  and  less  of  the  blood  of  the 
foreign  breed ;  but  when  there  has  been  no  cross  with  a 
distinct  breed,  and  there  is  a  tendency  in  both  parents  to 
revert  to  some  long-lost  character,  this  tendency,  for  all  that 
we  can  see  to  the  contrary,  may  be  transmitted  undiminished 
for  an  indefinite  number  of  generations.  These  two  distinct 
cases  of  reversion  are  often  confounded  together  by  those 
who  have  written  on  inheritance. 

Considering,  on  the  one  hand,  the  improbability  of  the 
three  assumptions  which  have  just  been  discussed,  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  how  simply  the  facts  are  explained  on  the 
principle  of  reversion,  we  may  conclude  tha^  the  occasional 
appearance  in  all  the  races,  both  when  purely  bred  and  more 
especially  when  crossed,  of  blue  birds,  sometimes  chequered, 
with  double  wing-bars,  with  white  or  blue  croups,  with  a 
bar  at  the  end  of  the  tail,  and  with  the  outer  tail-feathers 
edged  with  white,  affords  an  argument  of  the  greatest  weight 
in  favour  of  the  view  that  all  are  descended  from  Columha  livia, 
including  under  this  name  the  three  or  four  wild  varieties  or 
sub-species  before  enumerated. 

To  sum  up  the  six  foregoing  arguments,  which  are  opposed 
to  the  belief  that  the  chief  domestic  races  are  the  descendants 
of  at  least  eight  or  nine  or  perhaps  a  dozen  species  ;  for  the 
crossing  of  any  less  number  would  not  yield  the  characteristic 
differences  between  the  several  races.  Firstly,  the  improba- 
bility that  so  many  species  should  still  exist  somewhere,  but 
be  unknown  to  ornithologists,  or  that  they  should  have 
become  within  the  historical  period  extinct,  although  man 
has  had  so  little  inflaence  in  exterminating  the  Avild  C.  livia. 
Secondly,  the  improbability  of  man  in  former  times  liaving 
thoTc>ughly  domesticated  and  rendered  fertile  under  confir.o 


Chap.  VI.  THEIK   KEVEKSION   IN   COLOUR.  213 

ment  so  many  species.  Thirdly,  these  sujoposed  species  having 
nowhere  become  feral.  Fourthly,  the  extraordinary  fact  that 
man  should,  intentionally  or  by  chance,  have  chosen  for 
domestication  several  species,  extremely  abnormal  in  cha- 
racter ;  and  furthermore,  the  points  of  structure  which 
render  these  supposed  species  so  abnormal  being  now  highly 
variable.  Fifthly,  the  fact  of  all  the  races,  thaugh  differing 
in  many  important  points  of  structure,  producing  perfectly 
fertile  mongrels ;  whilst  all  the  hybrids  which  have  been 
produced  between  even  closely  allied  species  in  the  pigeon- 
family  are  sterile.  Sixthly,  the  remarkable  statements  just 
given  on  the  tendency  in  all  the  races,  both  when  purely 
bred  and  when  crossed,  to  revert  in  numerous  minute  details 
of  colouring  to  the  character  of  the  wild  rook-pigeon,  and  to 
vary  in  a  similar  manner.  To  these  arguments  may  be 
added  the  extreme  improbability  that  a  number  of  species 
formerly  existed,  which  differed  greatly  from  each  other  in 
some  few  points,  but  which  resembled  each  other  as  closely 
as  do  the  domestic  races  in  other  points  of  structure,  in 
voice,  and  in  all  their  habits  of  life.  When  these  several 
facts  and  arguments  are  fairly  taken  into  consideration,  it 
would  require  an  overwhelming  amount  of  evidence  to  make 
us  admit  that  the  chief  domestic  races  are  descended  from 
several  aboriginal  stocks;  and  of  such  evidence  there  is 
absolutely  none. 

The  belief  that  the  chief  domestic  races  are  descended  from 
several  wild  stocks  no  doubt  has  arisen  from  the  apparent 
improbability  of  such  great  modifications  of  structure  having 
been  effected  since  man  first  domesticated  the  rock-pigeon. 
Nor  am  I  surprised  at  any  degree  of  hesitation  in  admitting 
their  common  parentage :  formerly,  when  I  went  into  my 
aviaries  and  watched  such  birds  as  Pouters,  Carriers,  Barbs, 
Fantails,  and  Short-faced  Tumblers,  &c.,  I  could  not  persuade 
myself  that  all  had  descended  from  the  same  wild  stock, 
and  that  man  had  consequently  in  one  sense  created  these 
remarkable  modifications.  Therefore  I  have  argued  the 
question  of  their  origin  at  great,  and,  as  some  will  think. 
eu]3erfluous  length. 

Finally,  in  favour   of   the   belief  that   all  the    races    are 


214  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS :  Chap.  VI 

descended  from  a  single  stock,  we  have  in  Columha  livia  a 
still  existing  and  widely  distributed  species,  which  can  be 
and  has  been  domesticated  in  various  countries.  This  species 
agrees  in.  most  points  of  structure  and  in  all  its  habits  of 
life,  as  well  as  occasionally  in  every  detail  of  plumage,  with 
the  several  domestic  races.  It  breeds  freely  with  them,  and 
produces  fertile  offspring.  It  varies  in  a  state  of  nature,^" 
and  still  more  so  when  semi-domesticated,  as  shown  by 
comparing  the  Sierra  Leone  pigeons  with  those  of  India,  or" 
with  those  which  apparently  have  run  wild  in  Madeira.  It 
has  undergone  a  still  greater  amount  of  variation  in  the  case 
of  the  numerous  toy-pigeons,  which  no  one  supposes  to  be 
descended  from  distinct  species ;  yet  some  of  these  toy- 
pigeons  have  transmitted  their  character  truly  for  centuries. 
Why,  then,  should  we  hesitate  to  believe  in  tliat  greater 
amount  of  variation  which  is  necessary  for  the  production  of 
the  eleven  chief  races  ?  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  in 
two  of  the  most  strongly-marked  races,  namely,  Carriers  and 
Short-faced  Tumblers,  the  extreme  forms  can  be  connected 
with  the  parent-species  by  graduated  differences  not  greater 
than  those  which  may  be  observed  between  the  dovecot- 
pigeons  inhabiting  different  countries,  or  between  the  various 
kinds  of  toy-pigeons, — gradations  which  must  certainly  be 
attributed  to  variation. 

That  circumstances  have  been  eminently  favourable  for 
the  modification  of  the  pigeon  through  variation  and  selec- 
tion will  now  be  sliown.  The  earliest  record,  as  has  been, 
pointed  out  to  me  by  Professor  Lepsius,  of  pigeons  in  a 
domesticated  condition,  occurs  in  the  fifth  Egyptian  djmasty, 
about  3000  B.C. ;  ^i  but  Mr.  Birch,  of  the  British  Museum, 
informs  me  that  the  pigeon  appears  in  a  bill  of  fai'e  in  the 
previous  dynasty.  Domestic  pigeons  are  mentioned  in 
Genesis,  Leviticus,  and  Isaiah.^^     In  the  time  of  the  Eomans, 

3*  It  deserves  notice,  as  bearing  on  predicament.     This  is  the  case,  as  Mr. 

the  general  subject  of  variation,  that  Blyth    has    remarked    to    me,    with 

not  only  0.  livia  presents  several  wild  Treron,  Palumlnis,  and  Turtur. 
forms,  regarded  by  some  naturalists  as  ^*  '  Dcnkraaler,'  Abth.  ii.  Bl.  70. 

species  and  by  others  as  sub-species  or  ^^  j^e  '  Doveoote,'  by  the  Rev.  E.  S. 

as  mere  varieties,  but  that  the  species  Dixon,     1851,     pp.     1 1-13.     A  lolphf 

of  several  allied  genera  are  in  the  same  Pictet   (in    his    '  Les   Origines    lado 


CiiAP.  VI.  rOllMA^TION   OF    RACES.  215 

as  we  hear  from  Pliny,^^  immense  prices  were  given  for 
pigeons;  "nay,  tliey  are  come  to  this  pass,  that  they  can 
reckon  np  their  pedigree  and  race."  In  India,  about  the 
year  1600,  pigeons  were  much  valued  by  Akber  Khan  : 
20,000  birds  wore  carried  about  with  the  court,  and  the 
merchants  brought  valuable  collections.  "  The  monarch  of 
Iran  and  Tnran  sent  him  some  very  rare  breeds.  His 
Majesty,"  says  the  courtly  historian,  "  by  crossing  the  breeds, 
which  method  was  never  practised  before,  has  improved  them 
astonishingly."  ^^  Akber  Khan  possessed  seventeen  distinct 
kinds,  eight  of  which  were  valuable  for  beauty  alone.  At 
about  this  same  period  of  1600  the  Dutch,  according  to 
Aldrovandi,  were  as  eager  about  pigeons  as  the  Eomans  had 
formerly  been.  The  breeds  which  were  ke23t  during  the 
fifteenth  century  in  Europe  and  in  India  apparently  differed 
from  each  other.  Tavernier,  in  his  Travels  in  1677,  speaks, 
as  does  Chardin  in  1735,  of  the  vast  number  of  pigeon- 
houses  in  Persia ;  and  the  former  remarks  that,  as  Christians 
were  not  permitted  to  keep  pigeons,  some  of  the  vulgar 
actually  turned  Mahometans  for  this  sole  purpose.  The 
Emperor  of  Morocco  had  his  favourite  keeper  of  pigeons,  as 
is  mentioned  in  Moore's  treatise,  published  1737.  In  England, 
from  the  time  of  VVillughby  in  1678  to  the  present  day,  as 
well  as  in  Germany  and  in  France,  numerous  treatises  have 
been  published  on  the  pigeon.  In  India,  about  a  hundred 
years  ago,  a  Persian  treatise  was  written;  and  the  writer 
thought  it  no  light  affair,  for  he  begins  with  a  solemn  in- 
vocation, "  in  the  name  of  God,  the  gracious  and  merciful." 
Many  large  towns,  in  Europe  and  the  United  States,  now 
have  their  societies  of  devoted  pigeon-  fanciers :  at  present 
there  are  three  such  societies  in  London.  In  India,  as  I  hear 
from  Mr.  Blyth,  the  inhabitants  of  Delhi  and  of  some  other 
great  cities   are    eager   fanciers.     Mr,   Layard    informs    me 

Europeennes,'    1859,    p.    399)    states  domestication   of  the    pigeon    in   the 

that  there  are  in  the  ancient  Sanscrit  East. 

language  between   25  and  30  names  ^^  English  translation,  1601,  Buck 

for  the   pigeon,   and  other  15  or  16  x.  ch.  xxxvii. 

Persian  names  ;  none  of  these  are  com-  ^*  'Ayeen  Akbery,'    translated    ]j 

mon  to  the  European  languages.    This  F.  Gladwin,  4to  edit.,  vol.  i.  p.  27(». 

tact  indicates   the   antiquity   of  the 


216  DOMESTIC   pigeons:  Chat.  VI 

that  most  of  the  known  breeds  are  kept  in  Ceylon.  In 
China.,  according  to  Mr.  Swinhoe  of  Amoy,  and  Dr.  Lockhart 
of  Shangai,  Carriers,  Fantails,  Tumblers,  and  other  varieties 
are  reared  with  care,  especially  by  the  bonzes  or  priests. 
The  Chinese  fasten  a  kind  of  whistle  to  the  tail-feathers  of 
their  pigeons,  and  as  the  flock  wheels  through  the  air  they 
produce  a  sweet  sound.  In  Egypt  the  late  Abbas  Pacha  was 
a  great  fancier  of  Fantails.  Many  pigeons  are  kept  at  Cairo 
and  Constantinople,  and  these  have  latel}^  been  imported  by 
native  merchants,  as  I  hear  from  Sir  W.  Elliot,  into  Southern 
India,  and  sold  at  high  prices. 

The  foregoing  statements  show  in  how  many  countries, 
and  during  how  long  a  period,  many  men  have  been  passion- 
ately devoted  to  the  breeding  of  pigeons.  Hear  how  an 
enthusiastic  fancier  at  the  present  day  writes  :  "If  it  were 
possible  for  noblemen  and  gentlemen  to  know  the  amazing 
amount  of  solace  and  pleasure  derived  from  Almond  I'umblers, 
when  they  begin  to  utideistand  their  properties,  I  should 
tliink  that  scarce  any  nobleman  or  gentleman  would  be 
without  their  aviaries  of  Almond  Tumblers."  ^^  The  pleasure 
thus  t  iken  is  of  paramount  importance,  as  it  leads  amateurs 
carefully  to  note  and  pieserve  each  slight  deviation  of 
structure  which  strikes  their  fancy.  Pigeons  are  often 
closely  confined  during  their  M^iole  lives ;  they  do  not 
partake  of  their  naturally  varied  diet ;  they  have  often  been 
transported  from  one  climate  to  another;  and  all  these 
changes  in  their  conditions  of  life  would  be  likely  to  cause 
variability.  Pigeons  have  been  domesticated  for  nearly 
5M00  years,  and  have  been  kept  in  many  places,  so  that  the 
numbers  reared  under  domestication  must  have  been  enor- 
mous :  and  this  is  another  circumstance  of  high  importance, 
for  it  obviously  favours  the  chance  of  rare  modifications  of 
structure  occasionally  appearing.  Slight  variations  of  all 
kinds  would  almost  certainly  be  observed,  and,  if  valued, 
would,  owing  to  the  following  circumstances,  be  preserved 
and  propagated  with  unusual  facility.  Pigeons,  differently 
fi'om  any  other  domesticated  animal,  can  easily  be  mated  f(.)i 

^  J.  M,  Enton,  'Treatise  on  the  Almond  Tumbler,'  1851 ;  Preface,  ji.  vi. 


CnAP.  YI.         HISTOEY    OF    THE    PRINCIPAL    RACES.  217 

life,  and,  though  kept  with  other  pigeons,  rarely  prove  im- 
faithfal  to  each  other.  Even  when  the  male  doos  break  his 
marriage-vow,  he  does  not  permanently  desert  his  mate.  I 
have  bied  in  the  same  aviaries  many  pigeons  of  different 
kinds,  and  never  reared  a  single  bird  of  an  impure  strain. 
Hence  a  fancier  can  with  the  greatest  ease  select  and 
match  his  birds.  He  will  also  see  the  good  results  of  his 
care ;  for  pigeons  breed  with  extraordinary  rapidity.  Ho 
may  freely  reject  inferior  birds,  as  they  serve  at  an  early 
age  as  excellent  food. 

History  of  the  p'incijpal  Haces  of  the  Pigeon.^^ 

Before  discussing  the  means  and  steps  by  which  the  chief  races 
have  been  formed,  it  will  be  advisable  to  give  some  historical  details, 
for  more  is  known  of  the  history  of  the  pigeon,  little  though  this  is, 
than  of  any  other  domesticated  animal.  Some  of  the  cases  are  inter- 
esting as  proving  how  long  domestic  varieties  may  be  propagated 
with  exactly  the  same  or  nearly  the  same  characters ;  and  other 
cases  are  still  more  interesting  as  showing  how  slowly  but  steadily 
races  have  been  greatly  modified  during  successive  generations.  In 
the  last  chapter  I  stated  that  Trumpeters  and  Laughers,  both 
so  remarkable  for  their  voices,  seem  to  have  been  perfectly  charac- 
terised in  1735  ;  and  Laughers  were  apparently  known  in  India 
before  the  year  16C0.  Spots  in  1676,  and  Nuns  in  the  time  of 
Aldrovandi,  before  1600,  were  coloured  exactly  as  they  now  are. 
Common  Tumblers  and  Ground  Tumblers  displayed  in  India,  before 
the  year  1600,  the  same  extraordinary  peculiarities  of  flight  as  at 
the  present  day,  for  they  are  well  described  in  the  '  Ayeen  Akbery.' 
These  breeds  may  all  have  existed  for  a  much  longer  period ;  we 
know  only  that  they  were  perfectly  characterised  at  the  dates  above 
given.  The  average  length  of  life  of  the  domestic  pigeon  is  probably 
about  five  or  six  years ;  if  so,  some  of  these  races  have  retained 
their  character  perfectly  for  at  least  forty  or  fifty  generations. 

Folders. — These  birds,  as  far  as  a  very  short  description  serves  for 
comparison,  appear  to  have  been  well  characterised  in  Aldrovandi's 
tirae,^^  before  the  year  ItOO.  Length  of  body  and  length  of  leg  are 
at  the  present  time  the  two  chief  points  of  excellence.  In  1735 
Moore  said  (see  Mr.  J.  M.  Eaton's  edition)— and  Moore  was  a  first- 
rate  fancier^that  he  once  saw  a  bird  with  a  body  20  inches  in 
leugth,  "  though  17  or  18  inches  is  reckoned  a  very  good  length ;"  and 
he  has  seen  the  legs  very  nearly  7  inches  in  length,  yet  a  leg  6^  or  6  J 
long  "  must  be  allowed  to  be  a  very  good  one."    Mr.  Bult,  the  most 


*^  As  in  the  following  discussion  I       completed  in  the  year  1858. 
often    speak    of  the    present   time,   I  ^^  '  Ornithologie,'  1600,  vol.  ii.  p. 

should  state  that  this   chapter   was       360. 


218  DOMESTIC   pigeons:  CHAr.  VI 

successful  breeder  of  Pouters  in  the  world,  informs  me  that  at 
present  (1858)  the  standard  length  of  the  body  is  not  less  than  18 
inches;  but  he  has  measured  one  bird  19  inches  in  length,  and  has 
heard  t)f  20  and  22  inches,  but  doubts  the  truth  of  these  latter 
statements.  The  standard  length  of  the  leg  is  now  7  inches,  but 
Mr.  Bult  has  recently  measured  two  of  his  own  birds  with  legs  7i 
long.  So  that  in  the  123  years  which  have  elapsed  since  1735  there 
has  been  hardly  any  increase  in  the  standard  length  of  the  body ; 
17  or  18  inches  was  formerly  reckoned  a  very  good  length,  and 
now  18  inches  is  the  minimum  standard ;  but  the  length  of  leg 
seems  to  have  increased,  as  Moore  never  saw  one  quite  7  inches 
long  ;  now  the  standard  is  7,  and  two  of  Mr  Buit's  birds  measured 
7 2  inches  in  length.  The  extremely  slight  improvement  in  Pouters, 
except  in  the  length  of  the  leg.  during  the  last  123  years,  may  bo 
partly  accounted  for  by  the  neglect  which  they  suffered,  as  I  am 
informed  by  Mr.  Bult,  until  within  the  last  20  or  30  years.  About 
1765  ^^  there  was  a  change  of  fashion,  stouter  and  more  feathered 
legs  being  preferred  to  thin  and  nearly  naked  legs. 

Fantiih. — The  first  notice  of  the  existence  of  this  breed  is  in 
India,  before  the  year  1600,  as  given  in  the  'Ayeen  Akbery;'^^  at  this 
date,  judging  from  Aldrovandi,  the  breed  Wcxs  unknown  in  Europe. 
In  1677  Willughby  speaks  of  a  Fantail  with  26  tail-feathers ;  in  1735 
Moore  saw  one  with  36  feathers  ;  and  in  1824:  MM.  Boitard  and 
Corbie  assert  that  in  France  birds  can  easily  be  found  with  42  tail- 
feathers.  In  England,  the  number  of  the  tail-feathers  is  not  at 
present  so  much  regarded  as  their  upward  direction  and  expansion. 
The  general  carriage  of  the  bird  is  likewise  now  much  valued.  The 
old  descriptions  do  not  suffice  to  show  whether  in  these  latter 
respects  there  has  been  much  improvement :  but  if  Fantails  with 
their  heads  and  tails  touching  had  formerly  existed,  as  at  the  present 
time,  the  fact  would  almost  certainly  have  been  noticed.  The 
Fantails  which  are  now  found  in  India  probably  show  the  state  of 
the  race,  as  far  as  carriage  is  concerned,  at  the  date  of  their  intro- 
duction into  Europe  ;  and  some,  said  to  have  been  brought  from 
Calcutta,  which  I  kept  alive,  were  in  a  marked  manner  inferior  to 
our  exhibition  birds.  The  Java  Fantail  shows  the  same  difference 
in  carriage ;  and  although  Mr.  Swinhoe  has  counted  18  and  24  tail- 
feathers  in  his  birds,  a  first-rate  specimen  sent  to  me  had  only 
14  tail-feathers. 

Jacobim. — This  breed  existed  before  1600,  but  the  hood,  judging 
from  the  figure  given  by  Aldrovandi,  did  not  enclose  the  head 
nearly  so  perfectly  as  at  present :  nor  was  the  head  then  white  ; 
nor  were  the  wings  and  tail  so  long,  but  this  last  character  might 
have  been  overlooked  by  the  rude  artist.  In  Moore's  time,  in  1735,  the 
Jacobin  was  considered  the  smallest  kind  of  pigeon,  and  the  bill  ia 

^*  '  A       Treatise       on       Domestic  of    part    of  the   '  Ayeen  Akberr '  ir 

Pigeons,'    dedicate  1    to    Mr.    Mayor,  '  Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist ,' vol 

I7t)5.     Preface,  p.  xiv.  six.  1847,  p.  104. 

'*  Mr.  Blyth  has  given  a  translation 


Chap.  VL         HISTORY   OF  THE   PRINCIPAL   RACES.  219 

said  to  be  very  short.  Hence  either  the  Jacobin,  or  the  other  kinds 
with  which  it  was  then  compared,  must  since  that  time  have  been 
considerably  modified ;  for  Moore's  description  (and  it  must  be 
remembered  that  he  was  a  first-rate  judge)  is  clearly  not  applicable, 
as  far  as  size  of  body  and  length  of  beak  are  concerned,  to  our  present 
Jacobins.  In  1795,  juging  from  Bechstein,  the  bre^d  had  assumed 
its  present  character. 

Turhits. — It  has  generally  been  supposed  by  the  older  writers  on 
pigeons,  that  the  Turbit  is  the  Cortbeck  of  Aldrovandi ;  but  if  this 
be  the  case,  it  is  an  extraordinary  fact  that  the  characteristic  frill 
should  not  have  been  noticed.  The  beak,  moreover,  of  the  Cortbeck 
is  described  as  closely  resembling  that  of  the  Jacobin,  which  shows 
a  change  in  the  one  or  the  other  race.  The  Turbit,  with  its  charac- 
teristic frill,  and  bearing  its  present  name,  is  described  by  Willughby 
in  1677;  and  the  bill  is  said  to  be  like  that  of  the  bullfinch, — a  good 
comparison,  but  now  more  strictly  applicable  to  the  beak  of  the 
Barb.  The  sub-breed  called  the  Owl  was  vrell  known  in  Moore's 
time,  in  1735, 

Tumblers— Gov[i-mon  Tumblers,  as  well  as  Ground  Tumblers,  perfect 
as  far  as  tumbling  is  concerned,  existed  in  India  before  the  year 
1600 ;  and  at  this  period  diversified  modes  of  flight,  such  as  flying 
at  night,  the  ascent  to  a  great  height,  and  manner  of  descent,  seem 
to  have  been  much  attended  to  in  India,  as  at  the  present  time. 
Belon  ^^  in  1555  saw  in  1  aphlagonia  what  he  describes  as  "  a  very 
new  thing,  viz.  pigeons  which  flew  so  high  in  the  air  that  they  were 
lost  to  view,  but  returned  to  their  pigeon-house  without  separating." 
This  manner  of  flight  is  characteristic  of  our  present  Tumblers,  but 
it  is  clear  that  Belon  would  have  mentioned  the  act  of  tumbling  if 
the  pigeons  described  by  him  had  tumbled.  Tumblers  were  not 
known  in  Europe  in  1600,  as  they  are  not  mentioned  by  Aldrovandi, 
who  discusses  the  flight  of  pigeons.  They  are  briefly  alluded  to  by 
Willughby,  in  1687,  as  small  pigeons  "  which  show  like  footballs  in 
the  air."  The  short-faced  race  did  not  exist  at  this  period,  as 
Willughby  could  not  have  overlooked  birds  so  remarkable  for  their 
small  size  and  short  beaks.  We  can  even  trace  some  of  the  steps 
by  which  this  race  has  been  produced.  Moore  in  1785  enumerates 
correctly  the  chief  points  of  excellence,  but  does  not  give  any  de- 
scription of  the  several  sub-breeds ;  and  from  this  fact  Mr.  Eaton 
infers*^  that  the  Short-faced  Tumbler  had  not  then  come  to  full 
perfection.  Moore  even  sj)eaks  of  the  Jacobin  as  being  the  smallest 
pigeon.  Thirty  years  afterwards,  in  1765,  in  the  Treatise  dedicate*] 
to  Mayor,  short-faced  Almond  Tumblers  are  fully  described,  but  the 
author,  an  excellent  fancier,  expressly  states  in  his  Preface  (p.  xiv.) 
that,  "  from  great  care  and  expense  in  breeding  Ihem,  they  have 
arrived  to  so  great  perfection  and  are  so  different  from  what  they 
were  20  or  30  years  past,  that  an  old  fancier  would  have  condemned 


"  'L'Histoire   de   la   Nature     des  *^  'Treat-se  on  Pigeons,'    1852,  p. 

Oiseaux,'  p.  314.  64. 


220  DOMESTIC   riGEONS  I  Chap.  VI 

them  for  no  other  reason  tlian  because  they  are  not  hke  what  used 
to  be  thought  good  when  he  was  in  the  fancy  before."  Hence  it 
would  appear  that  there  was  a  raCher  sudden  change  in  the  character 
of  the  short-faced  Tumbler  at  about  this  period  ;  and  there  is  reason 
to  suspect  that  a  dwarfed  and  half-monstrous  bird,  the  parent-form 
of  the  several  short-faced  sub-breeds,  then  appeared.  I  suspect 
this  because  short-faced  Tumblers  are  born  with  their  beaks 
(ascertained  by  careful  measurement)  as  short,  proportionally  with 
the  size  of  their  bodies,  as  in  the  adult  bird ;  and  in  this  respect 
they  differ  greatly  from  all  other  breeds,  which  slowly  acquire  during 
growth  their  various  characteristic  qualities. 

Since  the  year  1765  there  has  been  some  change  in  one  of  the 
chief  characters  of  the  short-faced  Tumbler,  namely,  in  the  length 
of  the  beak.  Fanciers  measure  the  "  head  and  beak"  from  the  tip 
of  the  beak  to  the  front  corner  of  the  eyeball.  About  the  year  1765 
a  "  head  and  beak"  was  considered  good,*^  which,  measured  in  the 
usual  manner,  was  f  of  an  inch  in  leugth  ;  now  it  ought  not  to 
exceed  f  of  an  inch ;  "  it  is  however  possible,"  as  Mr.  Eaton  candidly 
confesses,  "  for  a  bird  to  be  considered  as  pleasant  or  neat  even  at  f 
of  an  inch,  but  exceeding  that  length  it  must  be  looked  upon  as 
unworthy  of  attention."  lir.  Eaton  states  that  he  has  never  seen 
in  the  course  of  his  life  more  than  two  or  three  birds  with  the  "  head 
and  beak"  not  exceeding  half  an  inch  in  length ;  "  still  I  believe  in 
tlie  course  of  a  few  years  that  the  head  and  beak  will  be  shortened, 
and  that  half-inch  birds  will  not  be  considered  so  great  a  curiosity 
as  at  the  present  time."  That  Mr.  Eaton's  opinion  deserves  attention 
cannot  be  doubted,  considering  his  success  in  winning  prizes  at  our 
exhibitions.  Finally  in  regard  to  the  Tumbler  it  may  be  concluded 
from  the  facts  above  given  that  it  was  originally  introduced  into 
Europe,  probably  first  into  England,  from  the  East ;  and  that  it 
then  resembled  our  common  English  Tumbler,  or  more  probably 
the  Persian  or  Indian  Tumbler,  with  a  beak  only  just  perceptibly 
shorter  than  that  of  the  common  dovecot-pigeon.  With  respect  to 
the  short-faced  Tumbler,  which  is  not  known  to  exist  in  the  East, 
there  can  hardly  be  a  doubt  that  the  whole  wonderful  change  in  the 
size  of  the  head,  beak,  body  and  feet,  and  in  general  carriage,  has 
been  produced  during  the  last  two  centuries  by  continued  selection, 
aided  probably  by  the  birth  of  a  semi-monstrous  bird  somewhere 
about  the  year  1750. 

Hunts. — Of  their  history  little  can  be  said.  In  the  time  of  Pliny 
the  pigeons  of  Campania  were  the  largest  known ;  and  from  this 
fact  alone  some  authors  assert  that  they  were  Runts.  In  Aldrovandi's 
time,  in  1600,  two  sub-breeds  existed;  but  one  of  them,  the  short- 
beaked,  is  now  extinct  in  Europe. 

Barbs. — Notwithstanding  statements  to  the  contrary,  it  seems  to 
me  impossible  to  recognise  the  Barb  in  Aldrovandi's  description  and 


«  J.   M.   Eaton's   'Treatise  on' the       Tumbler,' 1851.  Compart  p.  7.  of  Pre- 
Brcedingaud  Managing  of  the  Almond       face,  p.  9,  and  p.  32. 


CiiAf.  VI.         HISTORY    OF   THE   PRINCIPAL   RACES.  221 

figures ;  four  breeds,  howeyer,  existed  in  the  year  1600  which 
evidently  were  allied  both  to  Barbs  and  Carriers.  To  show  how 
difficult  it  is  to  recognise  some  of  the  breeds  described  by  Aldrovandi 
I  will  give  the  different  opinions  in  regard  to  the  above  four  kinds, 
named  by  him  C.  i7id'ica,  crett?/ sis, guttHvosa,  and  persica.  Willughby, 
thought  that  tlie  Cohimba  indica  was  a  Turbit,  but  the  eminent 
fancier  Mr.  Brent  believes  that  it  was  an  inferior  Barb  :  G.  cretensl^., 
with  a  short  beak  and  a  swelling  on  the  upper  mandible,  cannot  b3 
recognised :  C.  (falsely  called)  gutturosa,  which  from  its  rostrum, 
breve,  crassum,  et  tuberosum  seems  to  me  to  come  nearest  to  the  Barb, 
Mr.  Brent  believes  to  be  a  Carrier  ;  and  lastly,  the  C  per  ska  et 
turcica,  Mr.  Brent  thinks,  and  I  quite  concur  with  him,  was  a  short- 
beaked  Carrier  with  very  little  wattle.  In  1687  the  Barb  was  known 
in  England,  and  Willughby  describes  the  beak  as  like  that  of  the 
Turbit;  but  it  is  not  credible  that  his  Barbs  should  have  had  a  beak 
hke  that  of  our  present  birds,  for  so  accurate  an  observer  could  not 
have  overlooked  its  great  breadth. 

English  Carrier. — Wo  may  look  in  vain  in  Aldrovandi's  work  for 
any  bird  resembling  our  prize  Carriers ;  the  C.  jiersica  et  turcica  of 
this  author  comes  the  nearest,  but  is  said  to  have  had  a  short  thick 
beak ;  therefore  it  must  have  approached  in  character  a  Barb,  and 
have  differed  greatly  from  our  Carriers.  In  Willughby's  time,  in 
1677,  we  can  clearly  recognise  the  Carrier,  yet  he  adds,  "  the  bill  is 
not  short,  but  of  a  moderate  length ;"  a  description  which  no  one 
would  apply  to  our  present  Carriers,  so  conspicuous  for  the  extra- 
ordinary length  of  their  beaks.  The  old  names  given  in  Europe  to 
the  Carrier,  and  the  several  names  now  in  use  in  India,  indicate 
that  Carriers  originally  came  from  Persia;  and  Willughby's  de- 
scription would  perfectly  apply  to  the  Bussorah  Carrier  as  it  now 
exists  in  Madras.  In  later  times  we  can  partially  trace  the  progress 
of  change  in  our  English  Carriers  :  Moore,  in  1735,  says  "  an  inch  and 
a  half  is  reckoned  a  long  beak,  though  there  are  very  good  Carriers 
that  are  found  not  to  exceed  an  inch  and  a  quarter."  These  birds 
must  have  resembled  or  perhaps  been  a  little  superior  to  the  Carriers, 
previously  described,  now  found  in  Persia.  In  England  at  the 
present  day  "  there  are,"  as  Mr.  Eaton  "^^  states,  "  beaks  that  would 
measure  (from  edge  of  eye  to  tip  of  beak)  one  inch  and  three-quarters, 
and  some  few  even  two  inches  in  length." 

From  these  historical  details  we  see  that  nearly  all  the 
chief  domestic  races  existed  before  the  year  1600.  Some 
remarkable  only  for  colour  appear  to  have  been  identical  with 
our  present  breeds,  some  were  nearly  the  same,  some  con- 
siderably different,  and  some  have  since  become  extinct. 
Several  breeds,  such  as  Finnikins  and  Turners,  the  swallow- 
tailed  pigeon  of  Bechstein  and  the  Carmelite,  seem  to  have 

■'''  'Treatise  on  Pigeons,'  1852,  p.  41. 


222  DOMESTIC    PIGEONS  :  CHAr.  VL 

originated  and  to  have  disappeared  within  this  same  period. 
Any  one  now  visiting  a  well-stocked  English  aviary  would 
certainly  pick  out  as  the  most  distinct  kinds,  the  massive  Eunt, 
tlie  Carrier  with  its  wonderfully  elongated  beak  and  great 
wattles,  the  Barb  with  its  short  broad  beak  and  eye-wattles, 
the  short-faced  Tumbler  with  its  small  conical  beak,  the 
Pouter  with  its  great  crop,  long  legs  and  body,  the  Fantail 
with  its  upraised,  widely-expanded,  well-feathered  tail,  the 
Turbit  with  its  frill  and  short  blunt  beak,  and  the  Jacobin 
with  his  hood.  Now,  if  this  same  person  could  have  viewed 
the  pigeons  kept  before  1600  by  Akber  Khan  in  India  and 
by  Aldrovandi  in  Europe,  he  would  have  seen  the  Jacobin 
with  a  less  perfect  hood  ;  the  Turbit  apparently  without  its 
ffill;  the  Pouter  with  shorter  legs,  and  in  every  way  less 
remarkable — that  is,  if  Aldrovandi's  Pouter  resembled  the  old 
German  kind  ;  the  Fantail  would  have  been  far  less  singular 
in  appearance,  and  would  have  had  much  fewer  feathers  in  its 
tail ;  he  would  have  seen  excellent  tlying  Tumblers,  but  he 
would  in  vain  have  looked  for  the  marvellous  short-faced 
breeds ;  he  would  have  seen  birds  allied  to  Barbs,  but  it  is 
extremely  doubtful  whether  he  would  have  met  with  our 
actual  Barbs ;  and  lastly,  he  would  have  found  Carriers  with 
beaks  and  wattle  incomparably  less  developed  than  in  our 
English  Carriers.  He  might  have  classed  most  of  the  breeds 
in  the  same  groups  as  at  present ;  but  the  differences  between 
the  groups  were  then  far  less  strongly  pronounced  than  at 
present.  In  sliort,  the  several  breeds  had  at  this  early  period 
not  diverged  in  so  great  a  degree  as  now  from  their  aboriginal 
common  parent,  the  wild  rock-pigeon. 

Manner  of  Formation  of  the  chief  Haces. 

We  will  now  consider  more  closely  the  probable  steps  by 
which  the  chief  races  have  been  formed.  As  long  as  pigeons 
are  kept  semi-domesticated  in  dovecots  in  their  native  countr}^ 
without  any  3are  in  selecting  and  matching  them,  they  are 
liable  to  little  more  variation  than  the  wild  C.  livia,  namely, 
in  the  wings  becoming  chequered  with  black,  in  the  croup 
being  blue  or  white,  and  in  the  size  of  the  body.  When, 
however,    dovecot  pigeons   are    transported    into    diversified 


Chap.  VI.        Mx\NNER   OF   FORMATION   OF    RACES.  223 

countries,  sucli  as  Sierra  Leone,  the  Malay  archipelago,  and 
Madeira,  they  are  exposed  to  new  conditions  of  life ;  and 
apparently  in  consequence  vary  in  a  somewhat  greater  degree. 
When  closely  confined,  either  for  the  pleasure  of  watching 
them,  or  to  prevent  their  straying,  they  must  be  exposed, 
even  in  their  native  climate,  to  considerably  different  con- 
ditions ;  for  they  cannot  obtain  their  natural  diversity  of 
food ;  and,  what  is  probably  more  important,  they  are 
abundantly  fed,  whilst  debarred  from  taking  much  exercise. 
Under  those  circumstances  we  might  expect  to  find,  from  the 
analogy  of  all  other  domesticated  animals,  a  greater  amount 
of  individual  variability  than  with  the  wild  pigeon  ;  and  this 
is  the  case.  The  want  of  exercise  apparently  tends  to  reduce 
the  size  of  the  feet  and  organs  of  flight ;  and  then,  from  the 
law  of  correlation  of  growth,  the  beak  apparently  becomes 
affected.  From  what  we  now  see  occasionally  taking  place  in 
our  aviaries,  we  may  conclude  that  sudden  variations  or 
sports,  such  as  the  appearance  of  a  crest  of  feathers  on  the 
head,  of  feathered  feet,  of  a  new  shade  of  colour,  of  an  addi- 
tional feather  in  the  tail  or  wing,  would  occur  at  rare  intervals 
during  the  many  centuries  which  have  elapsed  since  the  pigeon 
was  first  domesticated.  At  the  present  day  such  "  sports  " 
are  generally  rejected  as  blemishes  ;  and  there  is  so  much 
mystery  in  the  breeding  of  pigeons  that,  if  a  valuable  sport 
did  occur,  its  history  would  often  be  concealed.  Before  the 
last  hundred  and  fifty  years,  there  is  hardly  a  chance  of  the 
history  of  any  such  sport  having  been  recorded.  But  it  by 
no  means  follows  from  this  that  such  sports  in  former  times, 
when  the  pigeon  had  undergone  much  less  variation,  would 
have  been  rejected.  We  are  profoundly  ignorant  of  the  cause 
of  each  sudden  and  apparently  spontaneous  variation,  as  well 
as  of  the  infinitely  numerous  shades  of  difference  between  the 
birds  of  the  same  family.  But  in  a  future  chapter  we  shall 
see  that  all  such  variations  appear  to  be  the  indirect  result  of 
changes  of  some  kind  in  the  conditions  of  life. 

Hence,  after  a  long  course  of  domestication,  we  might 
expect  to  see  in  the  pigeon  much  individual  variability,  and 
occasional  sudden  variations,  as  well  as  slight  modifications 
from    the   lessened   use  of  certain  parts,   together  with  the 


224  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS !  Chap.  VI 

effects  of  correlation  of  growth.  But  without  selection  all 
this  would  produce  only  a  trifling  or  no  result ;  for  without 
such  aid  differences  of  all  kinds  would,  from  the  two  following 
causes,  soon  disappear.  In  a  healthy  and  vigorous  lot  of 
pigeons  many  more  young  birds  are  killed  for  food  or  die  than 
are  reared  to  maturity ;  so  that  an  individual  having  any 
peculiar  character,  if  not  selected,  would  run  a  good  chance  of 
being  destroyed ;  and  if  not  destroyed,  the  peculiarity  in 
question  would  generally  be  obliterated  by  free  intercrossing. 
It  might,  however,  occasionally  happen  that  the  same  varia- 
tion repeatedly  occurred,  owing  to  the  action  of  peculiar  and 
uniform  conditions  of  life,  and  in  this  case  it  would  prevail 
independently  of  selection.  But  when  selection  is  brought 
into  play  all  is  changed ;  for  this  is  the  foundation-stone  in 
the  formation  of  new  races ;  and  with  the  pigeon,  circum- 
stances, as  we  have  already  seen,  are  eminently  favourable  for 
selection.  When  a  bird  presenting  some  conspicuous  vari- 
ation has  been  preserved,  and  its  offspring  have  been  selected, 
carefully  matched,  and  again  propagated,  and  so  onwards 
during  successive  generations,  the  principle  is  so  obvious  that 
nothing  more  need  be  said  about  it.  This  may  be  called 
methodical  selection,  for  the  breeder  has  a  distinct  object  in 
view,  namely,  to  preserve  some  character  which  has  actually 
appeared ;  or  to  create  some  improvement  already  pictured  in 
his  mind. 

Another  form  of  selection  has  hardly  been  noticed  by  those 
authors  who  have  discussed  this  subject,  but  is  even  more  im- 
portant. This  form  may  be  called  unconscious  selection^  for 
the  breeder  selects  his  birds  unconsciously,  unintentionally, 
and  without  method,  yet  he  surely  though  slowly  produces  a 
great  result.  I  refer  to  the  effects  which  follow  from  each 
fancier  at  first  procuring  and  afterwards  rearing  as  good  birds 
as  he  can,  according  to  his  skill,  and  according  to  the  standard 
of  excellence  at  each  successive  period.  He  does  not  wish 
permanently  to  modify  the  breed  ;  he  does  not  look  to  the 
distant  future,  or  speculate  on  the  final  result  of  the  slow 
aectimulation  during  many  generations  of  successive  slight 
changes  ;  he  is  content  if  he  possesses  a  good  stock,  and  more 
than  content  if  he  can  beat  his  rivals.     The  fancier  in  the 


CiiAt.  VI.         MANNER    OF   FORMATION    OF    RACES.  225 

time  of  AldroYandi,  when  in  the  year  1600  he  admired  his 
own  Jacobins,  Pouters,  or  Carriers,  never  reflected  what  their 
descendants  in  the  year  1860  would  become :  he  would  have 
been  astonished  could  he  have  seen  our  Jacobins,  our  improved 
English  Carriers,  and  our  Pouters ;  he  would  probably  have 
denied  that  they  were  the  descendants  of  his  own  once- 
admired  stock,  and  he  would  perhaps  not  have  valued 
them,  for  no  other  reason,  as  was  written  in  1765,  "than 
because  they  were  not  like  what  used  to  be  thought  good 
when  he  was  in  the  fancy."  Ko  one  will  attribute  the 
lengthened  beak  of  the  Carrier,  the  shortened  beak  of  the 
Short-faced  Tumbler,  the  lengthened  leg  of  the  Pouter,  the 
more  perfectly  enclosed  hood  of  the  Jacobin,  &g., —  changes 
effected  since  the  time  of  Aldrovandi,  or  even  since  a  much 
later  period, — to  the  direct  and  immediate  action  of  the  con- 
ditions of  life.  For  these  several  races  have  been  modified  in 
various  and  even  in  directly  opposite  ways,  though  kept 
under  the  same  climate  and  treated  in  all  respects  in  as  nearly 
uniform  a  manner  as  possible.  Each  slight  change  in  the 
length  or  shortness  of  the  beak,  in  the  length  of  leg,  &c.,  has 
no  doubt  been  indirectly  and  remotely  caused  by  some  change 
in  the  conditions  to  which  the  bird  has  been  subjected,  but 
we  must  attribute  the  final  result,  as  is  manifest  in  those 
cases  of  which  we  have  any  historical  record,  to  the  con- 
tinued selection  and  accumulation  of  many  slight  successive 
variations. 

The  action  of  unconscious  selection,  as  far  as  pigeons  are 
concerned,  depends  on -a  universal  princijDle  in  human  nature, 
namely,  on  our  rivalry,  and  desire  to  outdo  our  neighbours. 
We  see  this  in  every  fleeting  fashion,  even  in  our  dress,  and 
it  leads  the  fancier  to  endeavour  to  exaggerate  every  pecu- 
liarity in  his  breeds.  A  great  authority  on  pigeons,^*  says, 
"  Fanciers  do  not  and  will  not  admire  a  medium  standard, 
that  is,  half  and  half,  which  is  neither  here  nor  there,  but 
admire  extremes."  After  remarking  that  the  fancier  of  Short- 
faced  Beard  Tumblers  wishes  for  a  very  short  beak,  and  that 
the  fancier  of  Long-faced  Beard  Tumblers  wishes  for  a  xery 

"  Eaton's  'Treatise  on  Pigeons,'  1858,  p.  86. 
16 


22(3  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS.  CuAi    VL 

long  beak,  lie  says,  with  respect  to  one  of  intermediate  lengtli, 
" Dont  deceive  yourself.  Do  you  suppose  for  a  moment  the 
short  or  the  long-faced  fancier  would  accept  such  a  bird  as  a 
gift  ?  Certainly  not ;  the  short-faced  fancier  could  see  no 
beauty  in  it ;  the  long-faced  fancier  would  swear  there  was 
no  use  in  it,  &c."  In  these  comical  passages,  written  seriously, 
we  see  the  principle  which  has  ever  guided  fanciers,  and  has 
led  to  such  great  modifications  in  all  the  domestic  races  which 
are  valued  solely  for  their  beauty  or  curiosity. 

Fashions  in  pigeon -breeding  endure  for  long  periods ;  we 
cannot  change  the  structure  of  a  bird  as  quickly  as  we  can  the 
fashion  of  our  dress.  In  the  time  of  Aldrovandi,  no  doubt 
the  more  the  pouter  inflated  his  crop,  the  more  he  was  valued. 
Nevertheless,  fashions  do  to  a  certain  extent  change  ;  first  one 
point  of  structure  and  then  another  is  attended  to ;  or  different 
breeds  are  admired  at  different  times  and  in  different  coun- 
tries. As  the  author  just  quoted  remarks,  "  the  fancy  ebbs 
and  flows  ;  a  thorough  fancier  now-a-days  never  stoops  to 
breed  toy-birds  ;  "  yet  these  very  "  toys  "  are  now  most  care- 
fully bred  in  Germany.  Breeds  which  at  the  present  time 
are  highly  valued  in  India  are  considered  worthless  in  England. 
No  doubt,  when  breeds  are  neglected,  they  degenerate ;  still 
we  may  believe  that,  as  long  as  they  are  kept  under  the  same 
conditions  of  life,  characters  once  gained  will  be  partially 
retained  for  a  long  time,  and  may  form  the  starting-point  for 
a  future  course  of  selection. 

Let  it  not  be  objected  to  this  view  of  the  action  of  uncon- 
scious selection  that  fanciers  would  not  observe  or  care  for 
extremely  slight  differences.  Those  alone  who  have  associated 
with  fanciers  can  be  thoroughly  aware  of  their  accurate 
powers  of  discrimination  acquired  by  long  practice,  and  of  tlio 
care  and  labour  which  they  bestow  on  their  birds.  I  have 
known  a  fancier  deliberately  study  his  birds  day  after  day  to 
settle  which  to  match  together  and  which  to  reject.  Observe 
how  difficult  the  subject  appears  to  one  of  the  most  eminent 
and  experienced  fanciers.  Mr.  Eaton,  the  winner  of  man}' 
prizes,  says,  "  I  would  here  particularly  giiard  you  against 
keeping  too  great  a  variety  of  pigeons,  otherwise  you  will 
know  a  little  about  all  the  kinds,  but  nothing  about  one  as  it 


Chap.  VI.         MANNER  OF  FORMATION   OF  RACES.  227 

ought  to  be  known."  "  It  is  possible  tliere  may  be  a  few 
fanciers  that  have  a  good  general  knowledge  of  the  several 
fancy  pigeons,  but  there  are  many  who  labour  under  the 
delusion  of  supposing  they  know  what  they  do  not."  Speaking 
exclusively  of  one  sub-variety  of  one  race,  namely,  the  short- 
faced  almond  tumbler,  and  after  saying  that  some  fanciers 
sacrifice  every  property  to  obtain  a  good  head  and  beak,  and 
that  other  fanciers  sacrifice  everything  for  plumage,  he 
remarks  :  "  Some  young  fanciers  who  are  over  covetous  go  in 
for  all  the  five  properties  at  once,  and  they  have  their  reward 
by  getting  nothing."  In  India,  as  I  hear  from  Mr.  Blyth, 
pigeons  are  likewise  selected  and  matched  with  the  greatest 
care.  We  must  not  judge  of  the  slight  divergences  from 
existing  varieties  which  would  have  been  valued  in  ancient 
days,  by  those  which  are  now  valued  after  the  formation  of  so 
many  races,  each  with  its  own  standard  of  perfection,  kept 
uniform  by  our  numerous  Exhibitions.  The  ambition  of  the 
most  energetic  fancier  may  be  fully  satisfied  by  the  difiiculty 
of  excelling  other  fanciers  in  the  breeds  already  established, 
without  trying  to  form  a  new  one. 

A  difficulty  with  respect  to  the  power  of  selection  will 
perhaps  already  have  occurred  to  the  reader,  namely,  what 
could  have  led  fanciers  first  to  attempt  to  make  such  singular 
breeds  as  Pouters,  Fantails,  Carriers,  &c.  ?  But  it  is  this  very 
difficulty  which  the  principle  of  unconscious  selection  re- 
moves. Undoubtedly  no  fancier  ever  did  intentionally  make 
such  an  attempt.  All  that  we  need  suppose  is  that  a 
variation  occurred  sufficiently  marked  to  catch  the  dis- 
criminating eye  of  some  ancient  fancier,  and  then  unconscious 
seler;tion  carried  on  for  many  generations,  that  is,  the  wish 
of  s^acceeding  fanciers  to  excel  their  rivals,  would  do  the 
rest.  In  the  case  of  Lhe  Fantail  we  may  suppose  that  the 
first  progenitor  of  the  breed  had  a  tail  only  slightly  erected, 
as  may  now  be  seen  in  certain  Runts,*^  with  some  increase  in 
the  number  of  the  tail-feathers,  as  now  occasionally  occurs 
with.  Nuns.     In  the  case  of  the  Pouter  we  may  suppose  that 

45  See  Neumeister's  figure  of  the  Florence  Eunt,  tab.  13,  in  '  Das  Ganze  der 
Taubenzucht.' 


228  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS.  Chap.  VI. 

some  "bird  inflated  its  crop  a  little  more  than  otlier  pigeons, 
as  is  now  the  case  in  a  slight  degree  with  the  cesophagus  of 
the  Turbit.  We  do  not  know  the  origin  of  the  common 
Tumbler,  but  we  may  suppose  that  a  bird  was  born  with 
some  affection  of  the  brain,  leading  it  to  make  somersaults  in 
the  air;^^  and  before  the  year  1600  pigeons  remarkable  for 
their  diversified  manner  of  flight  were  much  valued  in  India, 
and  by  the  order  of  the  Emperor  Akber  Khan  were  sedulously 
trained  and  carefully  matched. 

In  the  foregoing  cases  we  have  supposed  that  a  sudden 
variation,  conspicuous  enough  to  catch  a  fancier's  eye,  first 
appeared ;  but  even  this  degree  of  abruptness  in  the  process 
of  variation  is  not  necessary  for  the  formation  of  a  new  breed. 
When  the  same  kind  of  pigeon  has  been  kept  pure,  and  has 
been  bred  during  a  long  period  by  two  or  more  fanciers, 
sliofht  differences  in  the  strain  can  often  be  recognized. 
Thus  I  have  seen  first-rate  Jacobins  in  one  man's  possession 
which  certainly  differed  slightly  in  several  characters  from 
those  kept  by  another.  I  possessed  some  excellent  Barbs 
descended  from  a  pair  which  had  won  a  prize,  and  another 
lot  descended  from  a  stock  formerly  kept  by  that  famous 
fancier  Sir  John  Sebright,  and  these  plainly  differed  in  the 
form  of  the  beak ;  but  the  differences  were  so  slight  that 
they  could  hardly  be  given  by  words.  Again,  the  com- 
mon English  and  Dutch  Tumbler  differ  in  a  somewhat 
greater  degree,  both  in  length  of  beak  and  shape  of  head. 
What  first  caused  these  slight  differences  cannot  be  explained 
any  more  than  why  one  man  has  a  long  nose  and  another  a 
short  one.  In  the  strains  long  kept  distinct  by  different 
fanciers,  such  differences  are  so  common  that  they  cannot  bo 
accounted  for  by  the  accident  of  the  birds  first  chosen  for 
breeding  having  been  originally  as  different  as  they  now  are. 
The  explanation  no  doubt  lies  in  selection  of  a  slightly 
different  nature  having  been  applied  in  each  case;   for  no 

46  Mr.  W.  J.  Moore  gives   a  full  nine,  to  an  ordinary  pigeon,  brings  on 

account  of  the  Ground  Tumblers  of  convulsive  movements  exactly  like 

India  ('  Indian  Medical  Gazette,'  Jan.  those  of  a  Tumbler.      One  pigeon, 

and  Feb.,  1873),  and  says  the  pricking  the  brain  of  which  had  been  pricked, 

the  base  of  the  brain,  and  giving  hy-  completely  recovered,  and  ever  after- 

drocyanic  acid,  together  with  strych-  wards  occasionally  made  somersaults. 


Chap.  VI.         MANNER   OF   FOKMATION   OF    RACES.  229 

two  fanciers  have  exactly  the  same  taste,  and  consequently 
no  two,  in  choosing  and  carefully  matching  their  birds, 
prefer  or  select  exactly  the  same.  As  each  man  naturally 
admires  his  own  birds,  he  goes  on  continuall}^  exaggerating 
by  selection  whatever  slight  peculiarities  they  may  possess. 
This  will  more  especially  happen  with  fanciers  living  in 
different  countries,  who  do  not  compare  their  stocks  or  aim 
at  a  common  standard  of  perfection.  Thus,  when  a  mere 
strain  has  once  been  formed,  unconscious  selection  steadily 
tends  to  augment  the  amount  of  difference,  and  thus  converts 
the  strain  into  a  sub-breed  and  this  ultimately  into  a  well- 
marked  breed  or  race. 

The  principle  of  correlation  of  growth  should  never  be  lost 
siglit  of.     Most  j)igeons  Have  small  feet,  apparently  caused 
by   their   lessened   use,  and  from   correlation,  as   it  would 
appear,  their  beaks  have  likewise  become  reduced  in  length, 
Tlie  beak  is  a  conspicuous  organ,  and,  as  soon  as  it  had  thus 
become  perceptibly  shortened,  fanciers  would  almost  certainly 
strive  to  reduce  it  still  more  by  the  continued  selection  of 
birds  with  the  shortest  beaks ;  whilst  at  the  same  time  other 
fmciers,  as  we  know  has  actually  been  the  case,  would  in 
other  sub-breeds,  strive  to    increase  its   length.     With  ihe 
increased  length  of   the  beak,  the  tongue  becomes    greatly 
lengthened,  as  do  the  eyelids  with  the  incrtsased  development 
oc  the  eye-wattles ;  with  the  reduced  or  increased  size  of  the 
feet,  the  number  of  the  scutellse  vary  ;  with  the  length  of  the 
wing,  the  number  of  the  primary  wing-feathers  differ;  and 
with  the  increased  length  of  the  body  in  the  pouter  the 
number  of   the  sacral  vertebree   is  augmented.     These  im- 
portant  and   correlated  differences  of   structure   d)  not  in- 
variably  characterise    any    breed ;    but    if     they    had    been 
attended   to  and    selected  with  as  much   care  as  the   more 
conspicuous  external  differences,  there  can  hardly  be  a  doubt 
that   they    would    have   been    rendered   constant.     Fanciers 
could   assuredly  have  made  a  race  of  Tumblers  Avith  nine 
instead  of  ten  primary  wing-feathers,  seeing  how  often  the 
number  nine  appears  without  any  wish  on  their  part,  and 
indeed  in  the  case  of  the  white- winged  varieties  in  opposition 
to  their  wish.     In  a  similar  manner,  if  the  vertebree  had 


230  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS.  Chap.  Yl 

been  -visible  and  had  been  attended  to  by  fanciers,  assuredly 
an  additional  number  might  easily  have  been  fixed  in  the 
Pouter.  If  these  latter  characters  had  once  been  rendered 
constant,  we  should  never  have  suspected  that  they  had  at 
first  been  highly  variable,  or  that  they  had  arisen  from 
correlation,  in  the  one  case  with  the  shortness  of  the  wings, 
and  in  the  other  case  with  the  length  of  the  body. 

In  order  to  understand  how  the  chief  domestic  races  have 
become  distinctly  separated  from  each  other,  it  is  important 
to  bear  in  mind,  that  fanciers  constantly  try  to  breed  from 
the  best  birds,  and  consequently  that  those  which  are  inferior 
in  the  requisite  qualities  are  in  each  generation  neglected; 
so  that  after  a  time  the  less  improved  parent-stocks  and 
many  subsequently  formed  intermediate  grades  become  ex- 
tinct. This  has  occurred  in  the  case  of  the  Pouter,  Turbit, 
and  Trumpeter,  for  these  highly  improved  breeds  are  now 
left  without  any  links  closely  connecting  them  either  with 
each  other  or  with  the  aboriginal  rock-pigeon.  In  other 
countries,  indeed,  where  the  same  care  has  not  been  applied, 
or  where  the  same  fashion  has  not  prevailed,  the  earlier 
forms  may  long  remain  unaltered,  or  altered  only  in  a  slight 
degree,  and  we  are  thus  sometimes  enabled  to  recover  the 
connecting  links.  This  is  the  case  in  Persia  and  India  with 
the  Tumbler  and  Carrier,  which  there  differ  but  slightly  froui 
the  rock-pigeon  in  the  proportions  of  their  beaks.  80  again 
in  Java,  the  Fantail  sometimes  has  only  fourteen  caudal 
feathers,  and  the  tail  is  much  less  elevated  and  expanded 
than  in  our  improved  birds ;  so  that  the  Java  bird  forms  a 
link  between  a  first-rate  Fantail  and  the  rock-pigeon. 

Occasionally  a  breed  may  be  retained  for  some  particular 
quality  in  a  nearly  unaltered  condition  in  the  same  country, 
together  with  highly  modified  off-shoots  or  sub-breeds,  which 
are  valued  for  some  distinct  property.  We  see  this  ex- 
emplified in  England,  where  the  common  Tumbler,  which  is 
valued  only  fur  its  flight,  does  not  differ  much  from  its 
parent- form,  the  Eastern  Tumbler;  whereas  ihe  Short-faced 
Tumbler  has  been  prodigiously  modified,  from  being  valued, 
not  for  its  flight,  but  for  other  qualities.  But  the  common- 
flying  Tumbler  of  Europe  has  already  begun  to  branch  out 


CuAP.  VI.         MANNER   OF    FORMATION    OF    RACES.  231 

into  slightly  different  sub-breeds,  such  as  the  common 
English  Tumbler,  the  Dutch  Eoller,  the  Glasgow  House- 
tumbler,  and  the  Long-faced  Beard  Tumbler,  &c. ;  and  in  the 
course  of  centuries,  unless  fashions  greatly  change,  these  sub- 
creeds  will  diverge  through  the  slow  and  insensible  process 
of  unconscious  selection,  and  become  modified,  in  a  greater 
and  greater  degree.  After  a  time  the  perfectly  graduated 
links  which  now  connect  all  these  sub-breeds  together,  will 
be  lost,  for  there  would  be  no  object  and  much  difficulty  in 
retaining  such  a  host  of  intermediate  sub- varieties. 

The  principle  of  divergence,  together  with  the  extinction 
of  the  many  previously  existing  intermediate  forms,  is  so 
important  for  understanding  the  origin  of  domestic  races,  as 
well  as  of  species  in  a  state  of  nature,  that  I  will  enlarge  a 
little  more  on  this  subject.  Our  third  main  group  includes 
Carriers,  Barbs,  and  Kunts,  which  are  plainl}^  related  to  one 
another,  yet  wonderfully  distinct  in  several  important  cha- 
racters. According  to  the  view  given  in  the  last  chapter, 
these  three  races  have  probably  descended  from  an  unknown 
race  having  an  intermediate  character,  and  this  race  from  the 
rock-pigeon.  Their  characteristic  differences  are  believed  to 
be  due  to  different  breeders  having  at  an  early  period  admired 
different  points  of  structure ;  and  then,  on  the  acknowledged 
principle  of  admiring  extremes,  having  gone  on  breeding, 
without  any  thought  of  the  future,  as  good  birds  as  they 
could, — Carrier-fanciers  preferring  long  beaks  with  much 
wattle, — Barb-fanciers  preferring  short  thick  beaks  with 
much  eye-wattle, — and  Eunt-fanciers  not  caring  about  the 
beak  or  wattle,  but  only  for  the  size  and  weight  of  the  body. 
This  process  would  have  led  to  the  neglect  and  final  extinc- 
tion of  the  earlier,  inferior,  and  intermediate  birds  ;  and  thus 
it  has  come  to  pass,  that  in  Europe  these  three  races  are  now 
so  extraordinarily  distinct  from  each  other.  But  in  the  East, 
whence  they  were  originally  brought,  the  fashion  has  been 
different,  and  we  there  see  breeds  which  connect  the  highly 
modified  English  Carrier  with  the  rock-pigeon,  and  others 
which  to  a  certain  extent  connect  Carriers  and  Runts.  Look- 
ing back  to  the  time  of  Aldrovandi,  we  find  that  there 
existed  in  Europe,  before  the  year  1600,  four  breeds  which 


232  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS.  Chap.  VI 

were  closely  allied  to  Carriers  and  Barbs,  but  which  competent 
authorities  cannot  now  identify  with  our  present  Barbs  and 
Carriers ;  nor  can  Aldrovandi's  Runts  be  identified  with  our 
present  Runts.  These  four  breeds  certainly  did  not  differ 
from  each  other  nearly  so  much  as  do  our  existing  English 
Carriers,  Barbs,  and  Runts.  All  this  is  exactly  what  might 
have  been  anticipated.  If  we  could  collect  all  the  pigeons 
which  have  ever  lived,  from  before  the  time  of  the  Romans 
to  the  present  day,  we  should  be  able  to  group  them  in 
several  lines,  diverging  from  the  parent  rock-pigeon.  Each 
line  would  consist  of  almost  insensible  steps,  occasionally 
broken  by  some  slightly  greater  variation  or  sport,  and  each 
would  culminate  in  one  of  our  present  highly  modified  forms. 
Of  the  many  former  connecting  links,  some  would  be  found 
to  have  become  absolutely  extinct  without  having  left  any 
issue,  whilst  others,  though  extinct,  would  be  recognized  as 
the  progenitors  of  the  existing  races. 

I  have  heard  it  remarked  as  a  strange  circumstance  that 
we  occasionally  hear  of  the  local  or  complete  extinction  of 
domestic  races,  whilst  we  hear  nothing  of  their  origin.  How, 
it  has  been  asked,  can  these  losses  be  compensated,  and  more 
than  compensated,  for  we  know  that  with  almost  all  domes- 
ticated animals  the  races  have  largely  increased  in  number 
since  the  time  of  the  Romans  ?  But  on  the  view  here  given, 
we  can  understand  this  apparent  contradiction.  The  ex- 
tinction of  a  race  within  historical  times  is  an  event  likely 
to  be  noticed ;  but  its  gradual  and  scarcely  sensible  modifi- 
cation through  unconscious  selection,  and  its  subsequent 
divergence,  either  in  the  same  or  more  commonly  in  distant 
countries,  into  two  or  more  strains,  and  their  gradual  conver- 
sion into  sub-breeds,  and  these  into  well-marked  breeds  are 
events  which  would  rarely  be  noticed.  The  death  of  a  tree, 
that  has  attained  gigantic  dimensions,  is  recorded ;  the  slow 
growth  of  smaller  trees  and  their  increase  in  number  excite 
no  attention. 

In  accordance  with  the  belief  in  the  great  power  of  selection, 
and  of  the  little  direct  power  of  changed  conditions  of  life, 
except  in  causing  general  variability  or  plasticity  of  organisa- 
tion, it  is  not  surprising  that  dovecot-pigeons  have  remained 


CUAP.  VI.         MANNER   OF    FORMATION   OF    RACES.  23u 

unaltered  from  time  immemorial ;  and  that  some  toy-pigeons, 
whicli  differ  in  little  else  besides  colour  from  the  dovecot- 
]  )igeon,  have  retained  the  same  character  for  several  centuries. 
For  when  one  of  these  toy-pigeons  had  once  become  beautifully 
and  symmetrically  coloured, — when,  for  instance,  a  Spot  had 
been  produced  with  the  crown  of  its  head,  its  tail,  and  tail- 
coverts  of  a  uniform  colour,  the  rest  of  the  body  being  snow- 
white, — no  alteration  or  improvement  would  be  desired.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  not  surprising  that  during  this  same 
interval  of  time  our  highly-bred  pigeons  have  undergone  an 
astonishing  amount  of  change ;  for  in  regard  to  them  there 
is  no  defined  limit  to  the  wish  of  the  fancier,  and  there  is  no 
known  limit  to  the  variability  of  their  characters.  What  is 
there  to  stop  the  fancier  desiring  to  give  to  his  Carrier  a 
longer  and  longer  beak,  or  to  his  Tumbler  a  shorter  and 
shorter  beak  ?  nor  has  the  extreme  limit  of  variability  in  the 
beak,  if  there  be  any  such  limit,  as  yet  been  reached.  Not- 
withstanding the  great  improvement  effected  within  recent 
times  in  the  Short-faced  Almond  Tumbler,  Mr.  Eaton  remarks, 
'•  the  field  is  still  as  open  for  fresh  competitors  as  it  was  one 
hundred  years  ago ; '  but  this  is  perhaps  an  exaggerated 
assertion,  for  the  young  of  all  highly-improved  fancy  birds 
are  extremely  liable  to  disease  and  death. 

I  have  heard  it  objected  that  the  formation  of  the  several 
domestic  races  of  the  pigeon  throws  no  light  on  the  origin  of 
the  wild  species  of  the  Columbidne,  because  their  differences 
are  not  of  the  same  nature.  The  domestic  races,  for  instance 
do  not  differ,  or  differ  hardl}^  at  al],  in  the  relative  lengths 
and  shape  of  the  primary  wing-feathei  s,  in  the  relative 
length  of  the  hind  toe,  or  in  habits  of  life,  as  in  roosting  and 
building  in  trees.  But  the  above  objection  .shows  how  com- 
pletely the  principle  of  selection  has  been  misunderstood.  It 
is  not  likely  that  characters  selected  by  the  caprice  of  man 
should  resemble  differences  preserved  under  natural  conditions 
either  from  being  of  direct  service  to  each  species,  or  from 
standing  in  correlation  with  other  modified  and  serviceable 
structures.  Until  man  selects  birds  differing  in  the  relative 
length  of  the  wing-feathers  or  toes,  &c.,  no  sensible  change 
in  these  parts  should  be  expected.    Nor  could  man  do  anything 


234  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS.  CiiAr.  VI. 

unless  these  parts  happened  to  vary  under  domestication : 
I  do  not  pcsitively  assert  that  this  is  the  case,  although  I 
have  seen  traces  of  such  variability  in  the  wing- feathers,  and 
certainly  in  the  tail-feathers.  It  would  be  a  strange  fact  if 
the  relative  length  of  the  hind  toe  should  never  vary,  seeing 
how  variable  the  foot  is  both  in  size  and  in  the  number  of 
the  scutella3.  With  respect  to  the  domestic  races  not  roosting 
or  building  in  trees,  it  is  obvious  that  fanciers  would  never 
attend  to  or  select  such  changes  in  habits ;  but  we  have  seen 
that  the  pigeons  in  Egypt,  which  do  not  for  some  reason 
like  settling  on  the  low  mud  hovels  of  the  natives,  are  led, 
apparently  by  compulsion,  to  perch  in  crowds  on  the  trees. 
AVe  may  even  affirm  that,  if  our  domestic  races  had  become 
greatly  modified  in  any  of  the  above  specified  respects,  and  it 
could  be  shown  that  fanciers  had  never  attended  to  such 
points,  or  that  they  did  not  stand  in  correlation  with  other 
selected  characters,  the  fact,  on  the  principles  advocated  in 
this  chapter,  would  have  offered  a  serious  difficulty. 

Let  us  briefly  sum  up  the  last  two  chapters  on  the  pigeon. 
We  may  conclude  with  confidence  that  all  the  domestic  races, 
notwithstanding  their  great  amount  of  difference,  are  de- 
scended from  the  Columba  liuia,  including  under  this  name 
certain  wild  races.  But  the  differences  between  the  latter 
throw  no  light  whatever  on  the  characters  which  distinguish 
the  domestic  races.  In  each  breed  or  sub-breed  the  individual 
birds  are  more  variable  than  birds  in  a  state  of  nature ;  and 
occasionally  they  vary  in  a  sudden  and  strongly-marked 
manner.  This  plasticity  of  organization  apparently  results 
from  changed  conditions  of  life.  Disuse  has  reduced  certain 
parts  of  the  body.  Correlation  of  growth  so  ties  the  organisa- 
tion together,  that  when  one  part  varies  other  parts  vary  at 
the  same  time.  When  several  breeds  have  once  been  formed, 
their  intercrossing  aids  the  progress  of  rnodification,  and  has 
even  produced  new  sub-breeds.  But  as,  in  the  construction 
of  «  building,  mere  stones  or  bricks  are  of  little  avail  without 
the  builder's  art,  so,  in  the  production  of  new  races,  selection 
has  been  the  presiding  power.  Fanciers  can  act  by  selection 
on  excessively  slight  individual  differences,  as  well  as  on 
those  greater  differences  which  are  called  sports.     Selection 


Chap.  VI.         MANN  Ell   OF    FORMATION    OF   RACES.  235 

is  followed  metliodically  when  the  fancier  tries  to  improve 
and  modify  a  breed  according  to  a  prefixed  standard  of  excel- 
lence; or  he  acts  unmethodically  and  unconsciously,  by 
merely  trjdng  to  rear  as  good  birds  as  he  can,  without  any 
wish  or  intention  to  alter  the  breed.  The  progress  of 
selection  almost  inevitably  leadri  to  the  neglect  and  ultima  to 
extinction  of  the  earlier  and  less  improved  forms,  as  well  as 
of  many  intermediate  links  in  each  long  line  of  descent. 
Thus  it  has  come  to  pass  that  most  of  our  present  races  are 
so  marvellously  distinct  from  each  other,  and  from  the 
aboriginal  rock-pig-eon. 


236  FOWLS.  Chap.  VII. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

FOWLS. 

BRIEF    DESCRIPTIONS    OF    THE     CHIEF     BREEDS ARGUMENTS     IN     FAYGUR      OF 

THEIR  DESCENT  FROM  SEVERAL  SPECIES — ARGUMENTS  IN  FAVOUR  OP  ALL 
THE  BREEDS  HAVING  DESCENDED  FROM  GALLUS  BANKIVA — REVERSION  TO 
THE  PARENT-STOCK  IN  COLOUR  —  ANALOGOUS  VARIATIONS  —  ANCIENT 
HISTORY  OF  THE  FOWL — EXTERNAL  DIFFERENCES  BETWEEN  THE  SEVERAL 
BREEDS — EGGS — CHICKENS — SECONDARY  SEXUAL  CHARACTERS — WING-  AND 
TAIL-  FEATHERS,  VOICE,  DISPOSITION,  ETC.-^OSTEOLOGICAL  DIFFERENCES 
IN  THE  SKULL,  VERTEBRiE,  ETC. — EFFECTS  OP  USE  AND  DISUSE  ON 
CERTALN   PARTS — CORRELATION   OF   GROWTH. 

As  some  naturalists  may  not  be  familiar  with  the  chief  breeds 
of  the  fowl,  it  will  be  advisable  to  give  a  condensed  descrip- 
tion of  them.^  From  what  I  have  read  and  seen  of  specimens 
brought  from  several  quarters  of  the  world,  I  believe  that 
most  of  the  chief  kinds  have  been  imported  into  England,  but 
many  sub-breeds  are  probabiy  still  unknown  here.  The 
following  discussion  on  the  origin  of  the  various  breeds  and 
on  their  characteristic  differences  does  not  pretend  to  com- 
pleteness, but  may  be  of  some  interest  to  the  naturalist.  The 
classification  of  the  breeds  cannot,  as  far  as  I  can  see,  be  made 
natural,  Thej^  differ  from  each  other  in  different  degrees,  and 
do  not  afford  characters  in  subordination  to  each  other,  by 
Avhich  they  can  be  ranked  in  group  under  group.  They  seem 
all  to  have  diverged  by  independent  and  different  roads  from 
a  single  type.  Each  chief  breed  includes  differently  coloured 
sub-varieties,  most  of  which  can  be  truly  propagated,  but  it 
would  be  superfluous  to  describe  them.  I  have  classed  the 
various  crested  fowls  as  sub-breeds  under  the   Polish  fowl ; 

^   I  have  drawn  up  this  brief  synop-  likewise  assisted  me  in  every  possible 

sis  from  various  sources,  but  chiefly  way  in  obtaining  for  me  information 

from   information   given  me    by    ]\1r.  and   specimens.     I  must  not  let  this 

Tegetraeier.        This     gentleman     has  opportunity  pass  without  expressing 

kindly  looked  through   this  chapter  ;  my  cordial  thanks  to  Mr.  B.  P.  Brent, 

and  from  his  well-known   knowledge,  a  well-known  writer  on  poultry,  for 

the  statements    here    given    may    be  continuous  assistance  and  the  gift  of 

fully  trusted.      Mr.    Tegetraeier   has  many  specimens. 


Chap.  VIL  DESCRIPTION   OF    BREEDS.  237 

bat  I  have  great  doubts  wlietlier  this  is  a  natural  arrange- 
ment, showing  true  affinity  or  blood  relationship.  It  is 
scarcely  possible  to  avoid  laying  stress  on  the  commonness  of 
a  breed;  and  if  certain  foreign  sub-breeds  had  been  largely 
kept  in  this  country  they  would  perhaps  have  been  raised  to 
the  rank  of  main-breeds.  Several  breeds  are  abnormal  in 
character ;  that  is,  they  differ  in  certain  points  from  all  wild 
Gallinaceous  birds.  At  first  I  made  a  division  of  the  breeds 
into  normal  and  abnormal,  but  the  result  was  wholly  unsatis- 
factory. 

1.  GrAME  Breed. — This  may  be  considered  as  the  typical  breed,  as 
it  deviates  only  slightly  from  the  wild  Gallus  hankiva,  or,  as  perhaps 
more  correctly  named, /errw^'^j^ews.  Beak  strong;  comb  single  and 
upright.  Spurs  long  and  sharp.  Feathers  closely  appressed  to  the 
body.  Tail  with  the  normal  number  of  14  feathers.  Eggs  often 
pale  buff.  Disposition  indomitably  courageous,  exhibited  even  in 
the  hens  and  chickens.  An  unus^^al  number  of  differently  coloured 
varieties  exist,  such  as  black  and  brown-breasted  reds,  duck  wings, 
blacks,  whites,  piles,  &c.,  with  their  legs  of  various  colours. 

2.  Malay  Breed. — Body  of  great  size,  with  head,  neck,  and  legs 
elongated ;  carriage  erect ;  tail  small,  sloping  downwards,  generally 
formed  of  16  feathers  ;  comb  and  wattle  small ;  ear-lobe  and  face 
red ;  skin  yellowish ;  feathers  closely  appressed  to  the  body  ;  neck- 
hackles  short,  narrow,  and  hard.  Eggs  often  pale  buff.  Chickens 
feather  late.    Disposition  savage.    Of  Eastern  origin. 

3.  Cochin,  or  Shangai  Breed. — Size  great ;  wing  feathers  short, 
arched,  much  hidden  in  the  soft  downy  plumage ;  barely  capable  of 
flight ;  tail  short,  generally  formed  of  16  feathers,  developed  at  a 
late  period  in  the  young  males  ;  legs  thick,  feathered  ;  spurs  short, 
thick;  nail  of  middle  toe  flat  and  broad;  an  additional  toe  not 
rarely  developed ;  skin  yellowish.  Comb  and  wattle  well  developed. 
Skull  with  deep  medial  furrow ;  occipital  foramen,  sub-triangular, 
vertically  elongated.  Voice  peculiar.  Eggs  rough,  buff-coloured. 
Disposition  extremely  quiet.     Of  Chinese  origin. 

4.  Dorking  Breed. — Size  great;  body  square,  compact;  fret 
with  an  additional  toe ;  comb  well  developed,  but  varies  much  in 
form;  wattles  well  developed;  colour  of  plumage  various.  Skull 
remarkably  broad  between  the  orbits.     Of  English  origin. 

The  white  Dorking  may  be  considered  as  a  distinct  sub -breed, 
bring  a  less  massive  bird. 

6.  Spanish  Breed  (fig  30). — Tall,  with  stately  carriage ;  tarsi 
long ;  comb  single,  deeply  serrated,  of  immense  size  ;  wattles  largely 
developed ;  the  large  ear-lobes  and  sides  of  face  white.  Plumage  black 
glossed  with  green.  Do  not  incubate.  Tender  in  constitution, 
the  comb  being  often  injured  by  frost.  Eggs  white,  smooth,  of 
large  size.     Chickens  feather  late  but  the  young  cocks  show  their 


238 


FOWLS. 


CHAr.  VIL 


masculine  characters,  and  crow  at  an  early  age.    Of  Mediterranean 
origin. 

The  Andalusians  may  be  ranked  as  a  sub-breed  :  they  are  of  a 
slaty-blue  colour,  and  their  chickens  are  well  feathered.  A  smaller, 
short-legged  Dutch  sub-breed  has  been  described  by  some  authors 
as  distinct. 


Fig.  30.— Spanish  Fuwl. 

6.  Hamburgh  Breed  (fig.  31). — Size  moderate ;  comb  flat,  pro- 
duced backwards,  covered  with  numerous  small  points ;  wattle  of 
moderate  dimensions ;  ear  lobe  white ;  legs  blueish,  thin.  Do  not 
incubate.  Skull,  with  the  tips  of  the  ascending  branches  of  the 
premaxillary  and  with  the  nasal  bones  standing  a  little  separate 
from  each  other ;  anterior  margin  of  the  frontal  bones  less  depressed 
than  usual. 


Chap  VIL 


DESCRIPTION   OF   BREEDS. 


239 


There  are  two  sub-breeds  ;  tbe  spanglexl  Hamburgh,  of  English 
origin,  with  the  tips  of  the  feathers  marked  with  a  dark  spot ;  and 
the  pencilled  Hamburgh,  of  Dutch  origin,  with  dark  transverse  hnes 
across  each  feather,  and  with  the  body  rather  smaller.  Both  these 
Eub-breeds  include  gold  and  silver  varieties,  as  well  as  some  other 
sub-varieties.  Black  Hamburghs  have  been  produced  by  a  cross 
with  the  Spanish  breed. 

7.  Crested  or  Polish  Breed  (fig.  32).— Head  with  a  large, 
rounded  crest  of  feathers,  supported  on  a  hemispherical  protuberance 


',f^:>Sit^^'^< 


Kig.  31 — Hamburgh  Fowl. 

of  the  frontal  bones,which  includes  the  anterior  part  of  the  brain. 
The  ascending  branches  of  premaxillary  bones  and  the  inner  nasal 
processes  are  much  shortened.  The  orifice  of  the  nostrils  raised 
and  crescentic.  Beak  short.  Comb  absent,  or  small  and  of  cre- 
scentic  shape;  wattles  either  present  or  replaced  by  a  beard-like 
tuft  of  feathers.  Legs  leaden-blue.  Sexual  differences  appear  late 
in  life.  Do  not  incubate.  There  are  several  beautiful  varieties 
which  differ  in  colour  and  slightly  in  other  respects. 


240 


FOWLS. 


Chat.  YH. 


The  following  sub-breeds  agree  in  having  a  crest,  more  or  less 
developed,  with  the  comb,  when  present,  of  crescentic  shape.  The 
skull  presents  nearly  the  same  remarkable  peculiarities  of  structure 
as  in  the  true  Polish  fo\yl. 

Sub-breed  (a)   Sultans. — A   Turldsh    breed,   resembling  white 
Polish  fowls  with  a  large  crest  and  beard    with  short  and  well- 


Fig.  32.— Polish  Fowl. 

feathered  legs.     The  tail  is  furnished  with  additional  sickle  feathers 
Do  not  incubate.^ 

Sub-breed  (i)  Ptarmigans.- — An  inferior   breed  closely  allied  to 


2  The  best  account  of  Sultans  is  by        kindness    the    examination    of    some 
Miss  Watts  in   '  The   Poultry  Yard,'        specimens  of  this  breed. 
1856,  p.   79.     I  owe   to   Mr.  Brent's 


Chap.  VII.  DESCRIPTION   OF    BREEDS.  241 

the  last,  white,  rather  small,  legs  much  feathered,  with  the  crest 
pointed;  comb  small,  cupped ;  wattles  small. 

Sub-breed  (c)  (Jhoondooks. — Another  Turkish  breed  having  an 
extraordinar}^  appearance ;  black  and  tailless ;  crest  and  beard  large ; 
legs  feathered.  The  inner  processes  of  the  two  nasal  bones  come 
iiito  contact  with  each  other,  owing  to  the  complete  abortion  of  the 
ascending  branches  of  the  premaxillaries.  I  have  seen  an  allied 
white,  tailless  breed  from  Turkey. 

Sub-breed  {d)  Creue-coeiir. — A  French  breed  of  large  size,  barely 
capable  of  flight,  with  short  black  legs,  head  crested,  comb  produced 
into  two  points  or  horns,  sometimes  a  little  branched  like  the  horns 
of  a  stag ;  both  beard  and  wattles  present.  Eggs  large.  Disposition 
quiet.^ 

Sub-breed  (e)  Horned  foiul. — With  a  small  crest;  comb  produced 
into  tw^o  great  points,  supported  on  two  bony  protuberances. 

Sub-breed  (/)  Houdan. — A  French  breed ;  of  moderate  size,  short- 
' legged  with  five  toes,  well  developed;  plumage  invariably  mottled 
with  black,  white,  and  straw-yellow ;  head  furnislied  with  a  crest,  on 
a  triple  comb  placed  transversely ;  both  wattles  and  beard  present.* 

Sub-breed  (r/)  Guelderlands. — No  comb,  head  said  to  be  surmounted 
by  a  longitudinal  crest  of  soft  velvety  feathers ;  nostrils  said  to  be 
crescentic ;  wattles  well  developed;  legs  feathered;  colour  black. 
From  North  America.  The  Breda  fowl  seems  to  be  closely  allied  to 
the  Guelderland. 

8.  Bantam  Breed. — Originally  from  Japan, ^  characterised  by 
small  size  alone  ;  carriage  bold  and  erect.  There  are  several  sub- 
breeds,  such  as  the  Cochin,  Game,  and  Sebright  Banta.ms,  some  of 
which  have  been  recently  formed  by  various  crosses.  The  Black 
Bantam  has  a  differently  shaped  skull,  with  the  occipital  foramen 
like  that  of  the  Cochin  fowl. 

9.  EuMPLESs  Fowls. — These  are  so  variable  in  character^  that 
they  hardly  deserve  to  be  called  a  breed.  Any  one  who  will  examine 
the  caudal  vertebrse  will  see  how  monstrous  the  breed  is. 

10.  Creepers  or  Jumpers. — These  are  characterized  by  an  almost 
monstrous  shortness  of  legs,  so  that  they  move  by  jumping  rather 
than  by  walking;  they  are  said  not  to  scratch  up  the  ground.  I 
have  examined  a  Burmese  variety,  which  had  a  skull  of  rather 
unusual  shape. 

11.  Frizzled  or  Caffre  Fowls. — Not  uncommon  in  India,  with 
the  feathers  curling  backwards,  and  with  the  primary  feathers  of 
the  wing  and  tail  imperfect.;  periosteum  of  bones  black. 


^  A  good  description,  with  figures,  '  Mr.  Crawfurd,    *  Descript.    Diet, 

is    given    of    this    sub-breed    in    the  of  the  Indian  Islands,'  p.   113.      Ban- 

'  Journal  of  Horticulture,' June  loth,  tarns  are    mentioned    in    an    ancient 

1862,  p,  206.  native  Japanese  Encyclopaedia,  as  I  am 

■*  A    description,    with     figures,  is  informed  by  Mr.  Birch  of  the  British 

given    of  this    breed  in    '  Journal   of  Museum. 

Horticulture,'  Jane  3rd,  1862,  p.  186.  "  '  Ornamental  and  Domestic  Poul- 

Sum^!  writers    describe   the   comb   as  try,'  1848. 
two-horned. 

17 


212  FOWLS.  Chap.  VTI 

12.  Silk  Fowls.— Feathers  silky,  with  the  primary  wing  and 
tail-feathers  imperfect;  skin  and  periosteum  of  bones  black;  comb 
and  wattles  dark  leaden-blue;  ear-lappets  tinged  with  blue;  legs 
thin,  often  furnished  with  an  additional  toe.     Size  rather  small. 

13  Sooty  Fowls. — An  Indian  breed,  having  the  peculiar  appear- 
ance of  a  white  bird  smeared  with  soot,  with  black  skin  and 
periosteum.     The  hens  alone  are  thus  characterised. 

From  this  synopsis  we  see  that  the  several  breeds  differ 
considerably,  and  they  would  have  been  nearly  as  interesting 
for  us  as  pigeons,  if  there  had  been  equally  good  evidence 
that  all  had  descended  from  one  parent-species.  Most  fanciers 
believe  that  they  are  descended  from  several  primitive  stocks. 
The  Eev.  E.  S.  Dixon  ^  argues  strongly  on  this  side  of  the 
question!  and  one  fancier  even  denounces  the  opposite  con- 
clusion by  asking,  "Do  we  not  perceive  pervading  this  spirit, 
the  spirit  of  the  Deist  ?  "  j\lost  naturalists,  with  the  exception 
of  a  few,  such  as  Temminck,  believe  that  all  the  breeds  have 
proceeded  from  a  single  species  ;  but  authority  on  such  a  point 
goes  for  little.  Fanciers  look  to  all  parts  of  the  world  as  the 
possible  sources  of  their  unknown  stocks ;  thus  ignoring  the 
laws  of  geographical  distribution.  They  know  well  that  the 
several  kinds  breed  truly  even  in  colour.  They  assert,  but,  as 
we  shall  see,  on  very  weak  grounds,  that  most  of  the  breeds 
are  extremely  ancient.  They  are  strongly  impressed  with  the 
great  difference  between  the  chief  kinds,  and  they  ask  with 
force,  can  differences  in  climate,  food,  or  treatment  have  pro- 
duced birds  so  different  as  the  black  stately  Spanish,  the 
diminutive  elegant  Bantam,  the  heavy  Cochin  with  its  many 
peculiarities,  and  the  Polish  fowl  wdth  its  great  top-knot  and 
protuberant  skull  ?  But  fanciers,  whilst  admitting  and  even 
overrating  the  effects  of  crossing  the  various  breeds,  do  not 
sufficiently  regard  the  probability  of  the  occasional  birth, 
during  the  course  of  centuries,  of  birds  with  abnormal  and 
hereditary  peculiarities  ;  they  overlook  the  effects  of  correla- 
tion of  growth — of  the  long-continued  use  and  disuse  of  parts, 
and  of  some  direct  result  from  changed  food  and  climate, 
though  on  this  latter  head  I  have  found  no  sufficient  evidence; 
and  lastly,  they  all,  as  far  as  I  know,  entirely  overlook  the  all- 
important  subject  of  unconscious  or  unmethodical   selection 

'  '  Ornamenta]  and  Domestic  Poultry.'  1848. 


Chap.  VIL  THEIR   PARENTAGE.  243 

thoTigli  they  are  well  aware  that  their  birds  differ  individually 
and  that  by  selecting  the  best  birds  for  a  few  generations  they, 
can  improve  their  stocks. 

An  amateur  writes  ^  as  follows  :  "  The  fact  that  poultry 
have  until  lately  received  but  little  attention  at  the  ha.nds  of 
the  fancier,  and  been  entirely  confined  to  the  domains  of  the 
producer  for  the  market,  would  alone  suggest  the  improba- 
bilit}^  of  that  constant  and  unremitting  attention  having  been 
observed  in  breeding,  which  is  requisite  to  the  consummating 
in  the  offspring  of  any  two  birds  transmittable  forms  not 
exhibited  by  the  parents."  This  at  first  sight  appears  true. 
Sut  in  a  future  chapter  on  Selection,  abundant  facts  will  be 
given  showing  not  only  that  careful  breeding,  but  that  actual 
selection  was  practised  during  ancient  periods,  and  by  barely 
civilized  races  of  man.  In  the  case  of  the  fowl  I  can  adduce 
no  direct  facts  showing  that  selection  was  anciently  practised  ; 
but  the  Eomans  at  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era- 
kept  six  or  seven  breeds,  and  Columella  "  particularly  recom- 
mends as  the  best,  those  sorts  that  have  five  toes  and  white 
ears."  ^  In  the  fifteenth  century  several  breeds  were  known 
and  described  in  Europe  ;  and  in  China,  at  nearly  the  s-ame 
period,  seven  kinds  were  named.  A  more  striking  case  is  that 
at  present,  in  one  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  the  semi-barbarous 
inhabitants  have  distinct  native  names  for  no  less  than  nine 
sub-breeds  of  the  Game  fowl.^°  Azara,^^  who  wrote  towards 
the  close  of  the  last  century,  states  that  in  the  interior  jDarts 
of  South  America,  where  I  should  not  have  expected  that  the 
least  care  would  have  been  taken  of  poultry,  a  black -skinned 
and  black-boned  breed  is  kept,  from  being  considered  fertile 
and  its  flesh  good  for  sick  persons.  JS'ow  every  one  vvho  has 
kept  poultry  knows  how  impossible  it  is  to  keep  several 
breeds  distinct  unless  the  utmost  care  be  taken  in  separating 
the  sexes.     Will  it  then  be  pretended  that  those  persons  who, 

^  Fev2;uson's  '  Illustrated  Scries  of  of  the  Domesticated  Animals  to  Civili- 

Rare  and  Prize  Poultry,'  1854,  p.  vi.  zation,'  separately  printed,  p.  (5;  first 

Preface.  I'ead  before  the  Brit.  Assoc,  at  Oxfoj-d, 

»  Ptev.  E.  S.  Dixon,  in  his  '  Orna-  1860. 
mental  Poultry,'  p.  203,  gives  an  ac-  "  '  Quadruples  du  Paraguay/ tcm, 

count  of  Columella's  work.  ii.  p.  324. 

'"  Mr.  Crawfurd  '  On  the  Relation 


244  FOWLS.  Chap.  Yll. 

in  ancient  times  and  in  semi-civilized  coiintries  tcok  pains  to 
keep  the  breeds  distinct,  and  who  therefore  valued  them» 
would  not  occasionally  have  destroyed  inferior  birds  and  occa- 
sionally have  preserved  their  best  birds  ?  This  is  all  that  is 
required.  It  is  not  pretended  that  any  one  in  ancient  times 
intended  to  form  a  new  breed,  or  to  modify  an  old  breed 
according  to  some  ideal  standard  of  excellence.  He  who 
cared  for  poultry  would  merely  wish  to  obtain,  and  afterwards 
to  rear,  the  best  birds  which  he  could ;  but  this  occasional 
preservation  of  the  best  birds  would  in  the  course  of  time 
modify  the  breed,  as  surely,  though  by  no  means  as  rapidly, 
as  does  methodical  selection  at  the  present  day,  If  one  person 
out  of  a  hundred  or  out  of  a  thousand  attended  to  the  breeding 
of  his  birds,  this  would  be  sufficient ;  for  the  birds  thus  tended 
would  soon  become  superior  to  others,  and  would  form  a  new 
strain  ;  and  this  strain  would,  as  explained  in  the  last  chapter 
slowly  have  its  characteristic  differences  augmented,  and  at 
last  be  converted  into  a  new  sub-breed  or  breed.  But  breeds 
would  often  be  for  a  time  neglected  and  would  deteriorate ; 
they  would,  however,  partially  retain  their  character,  and 
afterwards  might  again  come  into  fashion  and  be  raised  to  a 
standard  of  perfection  higher  than  their  former  standard  ;  as 
has  actually  occurred  quite  recently  with  Polish  fowls.  If, 
however,  a  breed  were  utterly  neglected,  it  would  become 
extinct,  as  has  recently  happened  with  one  of  the  Polish  sub- 
breeds.  Whenever  in  the  course  of  past  centuries  a  bird 
appeared  with  some  slight  abnormal  structure,  such  as  with  a 
lark-like  crest  on  its  head,  it  would  probably  often  have  been 
preserved  from  that  love  of  novelty  which  leads  some  persons 
in  England  to  keep  rumpless  fowls,  and  others  in  India  to 
keep  frizzled  fowls.  And  after  a  time  any  such  abnormal 
appearance  would  be  carefully  preserved,  from  being  esteemed 
a  sign  of  the  purity  and  excellence  of  the  breed  ;  for  on  this 
principle  the  Romans  eighteen  centuries  ago  valued  the  fifth 
toe  and  the  white  ear-lobe  in  their  fowls. 

Thus  from  the  occasional  appearance  of  abnormal  cha- 
racters, though  at  first  only  slight  in  degree;  from  the  effects 
of  the  use  and  the  disuse  of  parts ;  possibly  from  the  direct 
sffocts    of  changed   climate   and   food ;    from    correlation  of 


Chap.  VJl.  THEIR   PARENTAGE.  245 

growth ;  from  occasional  reversions  to  old  and  long-lost 
characters ;  from  the  crossing  of  breeds,  when  more  than 
one  had  l^en  formed ;  but,  above  all,  from  unconscioi^s 
selection  carried  on  during  many  generations,  there  is  no 
insuperable  difficulty,  to  the  best  of  my  judgment,  in  believ- 
ing that  all  the  breeds  have  descended  from  sohie  one  parent- 
source.  Can  any  single  species  be  named  from  which  we 
may  reasonably  suppose  that  all  are  descended  ?  The  Gallus 
hankiva  apparently  fulfils  every  requirement.  I  have  already 
given  as  fair  an  account  as  I  could  of  the  arguments  in 
favour  of  the  multiple  origin  of  the  several  breeds  ;  and  now 
I  will  give  those  in  favour  of  their  common  descent  from 
G.  bankiva. 

But  it  will  be  convenient  first  briefly  to  describe  all  the  known 
species  of  Gallus.  The  G.  sonneratii  does  not  range  into  the  northern 
parts  of  India ;  according  to  Colonel  Sykes/^  it  presents  at  different 
heights  of  the  Ghauts,  two  strongly  marked  varieties,  perhaps 
deserving  to  be  called  species.  It  was  at  one  time  thought  to  be 
the  primitive  stock  of  all  our  domestic  breeds,  and  this  shows  that 
it  closely  approaches  the  common  fowl  in  general  structure ;  but  its 
hackles  partially  consist  of  highly  peculiar,  horny  laminae,  trans- 
versely banded  with  three  colours  ;  and  I  have  met  no  authentic 
account  of  any  such  character  having  been  observed  in  any  domestic 
breed. ^^  This  species  also  differs  greatly  from  the  common  fowl,  in 
the  comb  being  finely  serrated,  and  in  the  loins  being  destitute  of 
true  hackles.  Its  voice  is  utterly  different.  It  crosses  readily  in 
India  with  domestic  hens ;  and  Mr  Blytli  ^*  raised  nearly  100  hybrid 
chickens ;  but  they  were  tender  and  mostly  died  whilst  young. 
Those  which  were  reared  were  absolutely  sterile  when  crossed  irder 
se  or  with  either  parent.  At  the  Zoological  Gardens,  however,  some 
hybrids  of  the  same  parentage  were  not  quite  so  sterile  :  Mr.  Dixon, 
as  he  informed  me,  made,  with  Mr.  Yarrell's  aid,  particular  inquiries 
on  this  subject,  and  was  assured  that  out  of  50  eggs  only  five  or  six 
chickens  were  reared.  Some,  however,  of  these  half-bred  birds  were 
crossed  with  one  of  their  parents,  namely,  a  Bantam,  and  produced 
a  few  extremely  feeble  chickens.  Mr.  Dixon  also  procured  some  of 
these  same  birds  and  crossed  them  in  several  ways,  but  all   were 

''  '  Proc.    Zoolog.     Soc'    1832,    p.  red  game-hen,  and  they  exhibited  the 

151,  true  character  of  those  of  G,  Sonne- 

^^  These    feathers    have    been    de-  ratii,  except   that  the  horny  laminae 

Hcribed by  Dr. W.Marshall,' Der Zoolog.  were  much  smaller. 

Garten,'  April   1874,   p.    124.     I  ex-  ^*  See  also   an   excellent  letter  on 

amined  the  feathers  of  some  hybrids  the  Poultry  of  India,  by  Mr.  Biyth, 

raised     in    the     Zoological     Gardens  in   '  Gardiner's    Chronicle,'    1851,    p 

between  the  male  G.  sonneratii  and  a  619. 


246  FOWLS.  Chap.  VII 

more  or  less  infertile.  Nearly  similar  experiments  have  recently 
been  tried  on  a  great  scale  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  with  almost 
the  same  result.^^  Out  of  500  eggs,  raised  from  varions  first  crosses 
and  hybrids,  between  G.  sonneratii,  hankiva,  and  varius,  only  12 
chickens  were  reared,  and  of  these  only  three  were  the  product  of 
hybrids  infer  se.  From  these  facts,  and  from  the  above-mentioned 
strongly-marked  differences  in  structure  between  the  domestic  fowl 
and  (t.  sonneratii,  we  may  reject  this  latter  species  as  the  parent  of 
any  domestic  breed. 

Ceylon  possesses  a  fowl  peculiar  to  the  island,  viz.  G.  stanleyii; 
this  species  approaches  so  closely  (except  in  the  colouring  of  the 
comb)  to  the  domestic  fowl,  that  Messrs.  Layard  and  Kellaert  ^^  would 
have  considered  it,  as  they  inform  me,  as  one  of  the  parent-stocks, 
had  it  not  been  for  its  singularly  different  voice.  This  bird,  like  the 
last,  crosses  readily  with  tame  hens,  and  even  visits  solitary  farms 
and  ravishes  them.  Two  hybrids,  a  male  and  female,  thus  produced, 
were  found  by  Mr.  Mitford  to  be  quite  sterile :  both  inherited  the 
peculiar  voice  of  G.  stanleyii.  This  species,  then,  may  in  all  pro- 
bability be  rejected  as  one  of  the  primitive  stocks  of  the  domestic 
fowl. 

Java  and  the  islands  eastward  as  far  as  Flores  are  inhabited  by 
G.  varius  (or  furcatus),  which  differs  in  so  many  characters — green 
plumage,  unserrated  comb,  and  single  median  wattle — that  no  ono 
supposes  it  to  have  been  the  parent  of  any  one  of  our  breeds ;  yet, 
as  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  Crawfurd,'''  hybrids  are  commonly  raised 
between  the  male  G.  varius  and  the  common  hen,  and  are  kept  for 
their  great  beauty,  but  are  invariably  sterile :  this,  however,  was 
not  the  case  with  some  bred  in  the  Zoological  Gardens.  These 
hybrids  were  at  one  time  thonght  to  be  specifically  distinct,  and 
were  named  G.  cenetcs.  Mr.  Blyth  and  others  believe  that  the  G. 
temminckii^^  (of  which  the  history  is  not  known)  is  a  similar  hybrid. 
Sir  J.  Brooke  sent  me  some  skins  of  domestic  fowls  from  Borneo, 
and  across  the  tail  of  one  of  these,  as  Mr.  Tegetmeier  observed,  there 
were  transverse  blue  bands  like  those  which  he  had  seen  on  the  tail- 
feathers  of  hybrids  from  G.  varius,  reared  in  the  Zoological  Gardens, 
This  fact  apparently  indicates  that  some  of  the  fowls  of  Borneo  have 
been  slightly  affected  by  crosses  with  G.  varius,  but  the  case  may 
possibly  be  one  of  analogous  variation.  I  may  just  allude  to  the  G. 
gif/antsus,  so  often  referred  to  in  works  on  poultry  as  a  wild  species ; 
but  Marsden  ^^  the  first  describer,  speaks  of  it  as  a  tame  breed ;  and 
the  specimen  in  the  British  Museum  evidently  has  the  aspect  of  a 
domestic  variety. 

"  Mr.    S.    J.   Salter,    in  '  Natuial  p.  113. 
History  Review,'  April  1863,  p.  276.  i*  Described    by   Mr.   G.   R.   Gray, 

^*  See  also  Mr.  Layard's  paper  in  '  Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc,'  1849,  p.  62. 
*  Annals   and   Mag.  of  Nat.  History,'  '^  The    passage    from    Marsden    is 

2nd  series,  vol.  xiv.  p.  62.  given  by  Mr.  Dixon  in  his  'Poultry 

^^  «S(2<?aIso  Mr.  Crawfurd's  '  Descrip-  Book,' p.  176.     No  ornithologist  now 

tive  Diet,  of  the  Indian  Islands,'  1856,  ranks  this  bird  as  a  distinct  species. 


Chap.  VII  THEIR   PARENTAGE.  247 

The  last  species  to  be  mentioned,  namely,  Gallus  harikiva,  has  a 
much  wider  geographical  range  than  the  three  previous  species  ;  it 
inhabits  Northern  India  as  far  west  as  Sinde,  and  ascends  the 
Himalaya  to  a  height  of  4000  ft. ;  it  inhabits  Burmah,  the  Malay 
peninsula,  the  Indo-Chinese  countries,  the  Philippine  Islands,  and 
the  Malayan  archipelego  as  far  eastward  as  Timor.  This  species 
varies  considerably  in  the  wild  state.  Mr.  Blyth  informs  me  that 
the  specimens,  both  male  and  female,  brought  from  near  the 
Himalaya,  are  rather  paler  coloured  than  those  from  other  parts  of 
India  ;  whilst  those  from  the  Malay  peninsula  and  Java  are  brighter 
coloured  than  the  Indian  birds.  I  have  seen  specimens  from  these 
countries,  and  the  difference  of  tint  in  the  hackles  was  conspicuous. 
The  Malayan  hens  were  a  shade  redder  on  the  breast  and  neck  than 
the  Indian  hens.  The  Malayan  males  generally  had  a  red  ear-lappet, 
instead  of  a  white  one  as  in  India ;  but  Mr.  Blyth  has  seen  one 
Indian  specimen  without  the  white  ear-lappet.  The  legs  are  leaden 
blue  in  the  Indian,  whereas  they  show  some  tendency  to  be  yellowish 
in  the  Malayan  and  Javan  specimens.  In  the  former  Mr.  Blyth 
finds  the  tarsus  remarkably  variable  in  length.  According  to 
Temminck  '^  the  Timor  specimens  differ  as  a  local  race  from  that  oi 
Java.  These  several  wild  varieties  have  not  as  yet  been  ranked  as 
distinct  species  ;  if  they  should,  as  is  not  unlikely,  be  hereafter  thus 
ranked,  the  circumstance  would  be  quite  immaterial  as  far  as  the 
parentage  and  differences  of  our  domestic  breeds  are  concerned. 
The  wild  O.  banklva  agrees  most  closely  with  the  black-breasted 
red  Game-breed,  in  colouring  and  in  all  other  respects,  except  in 
being  smaller,  and  in  the  tail  being  carried  more  horizontally.  But 
the  manner  in  which  the  tail  is  carried  is  highly  variable  in  many 
of  our  breeds,  for,  as  Mr.  Brent  informs  me,  the  tail  slopes  much  in 
the  Malays,  is  erect  in  the  Games  and  some  other  breeds,  and  is 
more  than  erect  in  Dorkings,  Bantams,  &c.  There  is  one  other 
difference  namely,  that  in  G.  bankiva,  according  to  Mr.  Blyth.  the 
neck-hackles  when  first  moulted  are  replaced  during  two  or  three 
months  not  by  other  hackles,  as  with  our  domestic  poultry,  but  by 
short  blackish  feathers.  ^^  Mr.  Brent,  however,  has  remarked  that 
these  black  feathers  remain  in  the  wild  bird  after  the  development 
of  the  lower  hackles,  and  appear  in  the  domestic  bird  at  the  same 
time  with  them  :  so  that  the  only  difference  is  that  the  lower  hackles 
are  replaced  more  slowly  in  the  wild  than  in  the  tame  bird ;  but  as 
confinement  is  known  sometimes  to  affect  the  masculine  plumage, 
this  slight  difference  cannot  be  considered  of  any  importance.  It  is 
a  significant  fact  that  the  voice  of  both  the  male  and  female  G. 
harikiva  closely  resembles,  as  Mr.  Blyth  and  others  have  noted,  the 
voice  of  both  sexes  of  the  common  domestic  fowl ;  but  the  last  note 
of  the  crow  of  the  wild  bird  is   rather  less  prolonged.     Captain 

**  *  Coup-d'oeil   general    sur  I'lnde  ^^  Mr.  Blyth,  in  '  Annals  and  Mag. 

Archipelagique,'    torn.   iii.  (184S),  p.  of  Nat.  Hist.,'  2nd  ser.,  vol.  i.  (184-r), 

177  ;  see  also   Mr.   Blyth  in  '  Indian  p.  455 
Sporting  Review,'  vol.  ii.  p.  5,  1856. 


248  FOWLS.  Chap.  VII 

Hutton,  well  known  for  his  researches  into  the  natural  history  of 
India,  informs  me  that  he  has  seen  several  crossed  fowls  from  the 
wild  species  and  the  Chinese  bantam;  these  crossed  fowls  hred  freely 
with  bantams,  but  unfortunately  were  not  crossed  inter  se.  Captain 
Hutton  reared  chickens  from  the  eggs  of  the  Gallus  hankiva ;  and 
these,  though  at  first  very  wild,  afterwards  became  so  tame  that  they 
would  crowd  round  his  feet.  He  did  not  succeed  in  rearing  them 
to  maturity  ;  but  as  he  remarks, ''  no  wild  gallinaceous  bird  thrives 
well  at  first  on  hard  grain."  Mr.  Bly  th  also  found  much  difficulty  in 
keeping  G.  hankiva  in  confinement.  In  the  Philippine  Islands, 
however,  the  natives  must  succeed  better,  as  they  keep  wild  cocks 
to  fight  with  their  domestic  game-birds.^^  Sir  Walter  Elliot  informs 
me  that  the  hen  of  a  native  domestic  breed  of  Pegu  is  undistinguish- 
able  from  the  hen  of  the  wild  G.  hankiva  ;  and  the  natives  constantly 
catch  wild  cocks  by  taking  tame  cocks  to  fight  with  them  in  the 
woods.^^  Mr.  Crawfurd  remarks  that  from  etymology  it  might  be 
argued  that  the  fowl  was  first  domesticated  by  the  Malays  and 
Javanese.^^  It  is  also  a  curious  fact,  of  which  I  have  been  assured 
by  Mr.  Blyth,  that  wild  specimens  of  the  Gallus  hankiva,  brought 
from  the  countries  east  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  are  far  more  easily 
tamed  than  those  of  India;  nor  is  this  an  unparalleled  fact,  for,  as 
Humboldt  long  ago  remarked,  the  same  species  sometimes  evinces  a 
more  tameable  disposition  in  one  country  than  in  another.  If  we 
suppose  that  the  G.  hankiva  was  first  tamed  in  Malaya  and  afterwards 
imported  into  India,  we  can  understand  an  observation  made  to  me 
by  Mr.  Blyth,  that  the  domestic  fowls  of  India  do  not  resemble  the 
wild  G.  hankiva  of  India  more  closely  than  do  those  of  Europe. 

From  tbe  extremely  close  resemblance  in  colour,  general 
structure,  and  especially  in  voice,  between  Gallus  hankiva  and 
the  Game  fowl;  from  their  fertility,  as  far  as  this  has  been 
ascertained,  when  crossed ;  from  the  possibility  of  the  wild 
species  being  tamed,  and  from  its  varying  in  the  wild  state, 
we  may  confidently  look  at  it  as  the  parent  of  the  most 
typical  of  all  the  domestic  breeds,  namely,  the  Game  fowl. 
It  is  a  significant  fact,  that  almost  all  the  naturalists  in 
India,  namely  Sir  W.  Elliot,  Mr.  S.  N.  Ward,  Mr.  Layard, 
Mr.  J.  C.  Jerdon,  and  Mr.  Blyth,^^  who  are  familiar  with 
G.  hankiva,  })elieve  that  it  is  the  parent  of  most  oi  all  oui 

^-  Crawfurd,  '  Desc.  Diet,  of  Indian  Journ.  of  Lit.  and  Science.'  to),  xxii. 

Islands,'  1856,  p.  112.  p.  2,  speaking  of  6'.  6an/jit>a,  says,  "  un- 

^^  In  Burmali,  as  I  hear  from  Mr.  questionably  the  origin  of  most  of  the 

Blyth,  the  wild  and  tame  poultry  con-  varieties  of  our  common  fowls."     For 

stantly  cross  together,  and  irregular  Mr.  Blyth,  see  his  excellent  article  in 

transitional  forms  may  be  seen.  'Gardener's    Chron.,'    1851,    p.   619; 

^*  Ibid.  p.  113.  and  in 'Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist..' 

2*  Mr.    Jerdon,     in    the    '  Madras  vol.  xx.,  1847,  p.  388. 


Chap.  ^^11.  THEIR   PALENTAGE.  249 

domeslic  bieeds.  But  even  if  it  be  admitted  that  G.  hanJdva 
is  the  parent  of  the  Game  breed,  yet  it  may  be  urged  that 
other  wild  species  have  been  the  parents  of  the  other  domestic 
breeds  ;  and  that  these  species  still  exist,  though  unknown,  in 
some  country,  or  have  become  extinct.  The  extinction,  how- 
ever, of  several  species  of  fowls,  is  an  improbable  hypothesis, 
seeing  that  the  four  known  species  haA^e  not  become  extinct 
in  the  most  ancient  and  thickly  peojoled  regions  of  the  East. 
There  is,  in  fact,  not  one  other  kind  of  domesticated  bird, 
of  which  the  wild  parent-form  is  unknown,  that  is  become 
extinct.  For  the  discovery  of  new,  or  the  rediscovery  of  old 
species  of  Gallus,  we  must  not  look,  as  fanciers  often  look,  to 
the  whole  world.  The  larger  gallinaceous  birds,  as  Mr.  Blyth 
has  remarked,^^  generally  have  a  restricted  range  :  we  see 
this  well  illustrated  in  India,  where  the  genus  Gallus  in- 
habits the  base  of  the  Himalaya,  and  is  succeeded  higher  up 
by  Gallophasis,  and  still  higher  up  by  Phasianus.  Australia, 
with  its  islands,  is  out  of  the  question  as  the  home  for 
unknown  species  of  the  genus.  It  is,  also,  as  improbable 
that    Gallas    should     inhabit     South    America^'    as    that    a 

2^  'Gardiner's  Chronicle'   1851,  p.  formed    him    that  they   had    escaped 

619.  from    a    vessel    wrecked  there  manx 

2^  I    have    consulted    an     eminent  years  ago  ;  they  were  extremely  wild 

authority,  Mr.  Sclater,  on  this  subject,  and  had  ''  a  cry  quite  ditterent  to  thai 

and  he  thinks  that  I  have  not  expressed  of  the  domestic  fowl,"  and  their  ap- 

myself  too  strongly.     I  am  aware  that  pearance    was     somewhat     changed. 

one  ancient  author,  Acosta,  speaks  of  Hence  it  is  not  a  little  doubtful,  uot- 

fowls  as  having  inhabited  S.  America  withstanding    the    statement    of   the 

at    the    period   of  its  discovery;  and  natives,   whether    these    birds   reallv 

more  recently,  about  1795,  Olivier  de  were    fowls.       That    the    fowl    has 

Serres   speaks    of  wild   fowls   in  the  become    feral    on    several    islands    is 

forests  of  Guiana  ;  these  were  probably  certain.       Mr.  Fry,    a    very    capable 

feral  birds.     Dr.  Daniell  tells  me,  he  judge,    informed    Mr.    Layard,    in    a 

believes  that  fowls  have  become  wild  letter,  that  the  fowls  which  have  run 

on    the     west    coast     of    Equatoi  ial  wild  on  Ascension  "  had  nearly  all  got 

Africa  ;  they   may,   however,   not  be  back   to  their  primitive  colours,  red, 

true    fowls,    but    gallinaceous   birds  and     black    cocks,    and     smoky-grey 

belonging    to    the     genus     Phasidus.  hens."     But  unfortunately  we  do  not 

The    old   voyager    Barbut    snys    that  know  the  colour  of  the  poultry  which 

poultry    are  not  natural    to   Guinea.  were  turned  out.     Fowls  have  become 

Capt.  W.  Alien  ('  Nai'rative  of  Niger  feral   on   the   Nicobar  Islands  (Blyth 

Expedition,'  1848,  vol.  ii.  p.  42)  de-  in  the   'Indian   Field,'  1858,  p.   62), 

scribes  wild  fowls  on  Ilha  dos  RiDllas,  and  in  the  Ladrones  (Anson's  Voyage), 

an    island  near  St.   Thomas's  on   the  Those    found    in    the    Pellew   Islands 

west  coast  of  Africa  :  the  natives  in-  Crawfurd)  are  believed  to  be  feral 


250  FOWLS.  Chap.  VII. 

hiiraming-bird  should  be  foniid  in  the  Old  World.  From  the 
character  of  the  other  gallinaceous  birds  of  Africa,  it  is  not 
probable  that  Gallus  is  an  African  genus.  We  need  not 
look  to  the  western  parts  of  Asia,  for  Messrs.  Bl^^th  and 
Crawfurd,  who  have  attended  to  this  subject,  doubt  whether 
Gallus  ever  existed  in  a  wild  state  even  as  far  west  as  Persia. 
Although  the  earliest  Greek  writers  speak  of  the  fowl  as  a 
Persian  bird,  this  probably  merely  indicates  its  line  of 
importation.  For  the  discovery  of  unknown  species  we  must 
look  to  India,  to  the  Indo-Chinese  countries,  and  to  the 
northern  parts  of  the  Malay  Archipelago.  The  southern 
portion  of  China  is  the  most  likely  country;  but  as  Mr. 
Blyth  informs  me,  skins  have  been  exported  from  China 
during  a  long  period,  and  living  birds  are  largely  kept  there 
in  aviaries,  so  that  any  native  species  of  Gallus  would  pro- 
bably have  become  known.  Mr.  Birch,  of  the  British 
Museum,  has  translated  for  me  passages  from  a  Chinese 
Encyclopsedia  published  in  1609,  but  compiled  from  more 
ancient  documents,  in  which  it  is  said  that  fowls  are 
creatures  of  the  West,  and  were  introduced  into  the  East 
(i.e.  China)  in  a  d^masty  1400  B.C.  Whatever  may  be  thought 
of  so  ancient  a  date,  we  see  that  the  Indo-Chinese  and  Indian 
regions  were  formerly  considered  by  the  Chinese  as  the  source 
of  the  domestic  fowl.  From  these  several  considerations  we 
must  look  to  the  present  metropolis  of  the  genus,  namely,  to 
the  south-eastern  parts  of  Asia,  for  the  discovery  of  species 
which  were  formerly  domesticated,  but  are  now  unknown  in 
the  wild  state :  and  the  most  experienced  ornithologists  do 
not  consider  it  probable  that  such  species  will  be  discovered. 
In  considering  whether  the  domestic  breeds  are  descended 
from  one  species,  namely,  G.  hankiva,  or  from  several,  we  must 
not  quite  overlook,  though  we  must  not  exaggerate,  the  im- 
portance of  the  test  of  fertility.  Most  of  our  domestic  breeds 
have  been  so  often  crossed,  and  their  mongrels  so  largely 
kept,  that  it  is  almost  certain,  if  any  degree  of  infertility 
had  existed  between  them,  it  would  have  been  detected.  On 
the   other   hand,   the   four   known    species  of  Gallus  when 

and    lastly,   it  is  asserted  that  they       but    whether  this  is  correct  I  know. 
have  become   feral  in   New  Zealand,       not. 


Cjiap.  VII.     REVEESION   AND    ANALOGOUS    REVEESION.         251 

crossed  witli  each  other,  or  when  crossed,  with  the  exception 
of  G.  bankiva,  with  the  domestic  fowl,  produce  infertile 
hybrids. 

Finally,  we  have  not  such  good  evidence  with  fowls  as 
with  pigeons,  of  all  the  breeds  having  descended  from  a 
single  primitive  stock.  In  both  cases  the  argument  of 
fertility  must  go  for  something;  in  both  we  have  the  im- 
probability of  man  having  succeeded  in  ancient  times  in 
thoroughly  domesticating  several  supposed  species, — most  of 
these  supposed  species  being  extremely  abnoimal  as  compared 
with  their  natural  allies, — all  being  now  either  unknown  or 
extinct,  though  the  parent- form  of  no  other  domesticated  bird 
has  been  lo^t.  But  in  searching  for  the  supposed  parent- 
stocks  of  the  various  breeds  of  the  pigeon,  we  were  enabled 
to  confine  our  search  to  species  having  peculiar  habits  of  life  ; 
whilst  with  fowls  there  is  nothing  in  their  habits  in  any 
marked  manner  distinct  from  those  of  other  gallinaceous 
birds.  In  the  case  of  pigeons,  I  have  shown  that  purely- 
bred  birds  of  every  race  and  the  crossed  offspring  of  distinct 
races  frequently  resemble,  or  revert  to,  the  wild  rock-pigeon 
in  general  colour  and  in  each  characteristic  mark.  With 
fowls  we  have  facts  of  a  similar  nature,  but  less  strongly 
pronounced,  which  we  will  now  discuss. 

Beversion  and  Analogous  Variation. — Purely-bred  Game, 
Malay,  Cochin,  Dorking,  Bantam,  and,  as  I  hear  from  Mr. 
Tegetmeier,  Silk  fowls,  may  frequently  or  occasionally  be 
met  with,  which  are  almost  identical  in  plumage  with  the 
wild  G.  hanhiva.  This  is  a  fact  well  deserving  attention, 
when  we  reflect  that  these  breeds  rank  amongst  the  most 
distinct.  Fowls  thus  coloured  are  called  by  amateurs  black- 
breasted  reds.  Hamburghs  properly  have  a  very  different 
plumage ;  nevertheless,  as  Mr.  Tegetmeier  informs  me,  "  the 
great  difficulty  in  breeding  cocks  of  the  golden-spangled 
variety  is  their  tendency  to  have  black  breasts  and  red  backs.' 
The  males  of  white  Bantams  and  white  Cochins,  as  they 
come  to  maturity,  often  assume  a  yellowish  or  saffron  tino-e. ; 
and  the  longer  neck  hackles  of  black  Bantam  cocks,"^^  when 

28  Ml.  Hewitt,  in  'The  Poultry  Book,'  by  W.  B.  Tegetmeier,  1866,  p.  248, 


252  FOWLS.  Chai'.  VI r. 

two  or  three  years  old,  not  "ancommonly  become  ruddy ;  these 
latter  Bantams  occasionally  "  even  moult  brassy- winged,  or 
actually  red-shouldered."  So  that  in  these  several  cases  we 
see  a  plain  tendency  to  reversion  to  the  hues  of  G.  hankiva, 
even  during  the  lifetime  of  the  individual  bird.  With 
Spanish,  Polish,  pencilled  Hamburgh,  silver-spangled  Ham- 
burgh fowls,  and  with  some  other  less  common  breeds,  I  have 
never  heard  of  a  black-breasted  red  bird  having  appeared. 

From  my  experience  with  pigeons,  I  made  the  following 
crosses.  I  first  killed  all  my  own  poultry,  no  others  living 
near  my  house,  and  then  procured,  by  Mr.  Tegetmeier's 
assistance,  a  first-rate  black  Spanish  cock,  and  hens  of  the 
following  pure  breeds, — white  Game,  white  Cochin,  silver- 
spangled  Polish,  silver-spangled  Hamburgh,  silver-pencilled 
Hamburgh,  and  white  Silk.  In  none  of  these  breeds  is  there 
a  trace  of  red,  nor  when  kept  pure  have  I  ever  heard  of  the 
appearance  of  a  red  feather;  though  such  an  occurrence 
would  perhaps  not  be  very  improbable  with  white  Games 
and  white  Cochins.  Of  the  many  chickens  reared  from  the 
above  six  crosses  the  majority  were  black,  both  in  the  down 
and  in  the  first  plumage ;  some  were  white,  and  a  very  few 
were  mottled  black  and  white.  In  one  lot  of  eleven  mixed 
eggs  from  the  white  Game  and  white  Cochin  by  the  black 
Spanish  cock,  seven  of  the  chickens  were  white,  and  only 
four  black.  I  mention  this  fact  to  show  that  whiteness  of 
plumage  is  strongly  inherited,  and  that  the  belief  in  the 
prepotent  power  in  the  male  to  transmit  his  colour  is  not 
always  correct.  The  chickens  w^ere  hatched  in  the  spring, 
and  in  the  latter  part  of  August  several  of  the  young  cocks 
began  to  exhibit  a  change,  which  with  some  of  them  increased 
during  the  following  years.  Thus  a  young  male  bird  from 
the  silver  spangled  Polish  hen  was  in  its  first  plumage  coal- 
black,  and  combined  in  its  comb,  crest,  wattle,  and  beard,  the 
characters  of  both  parents;  but  when  two  years  old  the 
secondary  wang-feathers  became  largely  and  symmetrically 
marked  with  wiiite,  and,  wherever  in  G.  hankiva  the  hackles 
are  red,  they  were  in  this  bird  greenish-black  along  the  shaft, 
narrowly  bordered  with  brownish-black,  and  this  again 
broadly  bordered  with  very  pale  yellowish-bro^vni ;  so  that  in 


Chap.  VII.     REVERSION    AND    ANALOGOUS    REVERSION.        253 

general  appearance  the  plumage  had  become  pale-colorred 
instead  of  black.  In  this  case,  with  advancing  age  there 
was  a  great  change,  but  no  reversion  to  the  red  colour  of 
G.  hankiva. 

A  cock  with  a  regular  rose  comb  deri^^ed  either  from  tho 
spangled  or  pencilled  silver  Hamburgh  was  likewise  at  first 
quite  black ;  but  in  less  than  a  year  the  neck-hackles,  as  in 
the  last  case,  became  whitish,  whilst  those  on  the  loins 
assumed  a  decided  reddish- yellow  tint ;  and  here  we  see  the 
first  symptom  of  reversion ;  this  likewise  occurred  with  some 
other  young  cocks,  which  need  not  here  be  described.  It  has 
also  been  recorded  ^^  by  a  breeder,  that  he  crossed  two  silver- 
pencilled  Hamburgh  hens  with  a  Spanish  cock,  and  reared  a 
number  of  chickens,  all  of  which  were  black,  the  cocks  having 
golden  and  the  hens  brownish  hackles  ;  so  that  in  this  instance 
likewise  there  was  a  clear  tendency  to  reversion. 

Two  young  cocks  from  my  white  Game  hen  were  at  first 
snow  white ;  of  these,  one  subsequently  assumed  pale  orange- 
coloured  hackles,  chiefly  on  the  loins,  and  the  other  an 
abundance  of  fine  orange  red  hackles  on  the  neck,  loins,  and 
upper  wing-coverts.  Here  again  we  have  a  more  decided, 
though  partial,  reversion  to  the  colours  of  G.  hanhwa.  This 
second  cock  was  in  fact  coloured  like  an  inferior  "pile  Game 
cock;" — now  this  sub-breed  can  be  produced,  as  I  am  in- 
formed by  Mr.  Tegetmeier,  by  crossing  a  black-breasted  red 
Game  cock  with  a  white  Game  hen,  and  the  "  pile  "  sub- 
breed  thus  produced  can  afterwards  be  truly  propagated.  So 
that  we  have  the  curious  fact  of  the  glossy-black  Spanish 
cock  and  the  black-breasted  red  Game  cock  when  crossed 
with  white  Game  hens  producing  offsjDring  of  nearly  the 
same  colours. 

I  reared  several  birds  from  the  white  Silk  hen  by  the 
Spanish  cock :  all  were  coal-black,  and  all  plainly  showed 
their  parentage  in  having  blackish  combs  and  bones ;  none 
inherited  the  so-called  silky  feathers,  and  the  non-inheritance 
of  this  character  has  been  observed  by  others.  The  hens 
never  varied  in  their  plumage.     As  the   young  cocks  grew 

^  'Journal  of  Horticulture,'  Jan.  Uth,  1862,  p.  325. 


254  FOWLS.  Chap.  VII. 

old,  one  of  them  assumed  j^-ello wish.- white  hac!kies,  and  thus 
vesembled  in  a  considerable  degree  the  cross  from  the  Ham- 
burgh hen;  the  other  became  a  gorgeous  bird,  so  much  so 
that  an  acquaintance  had  it  preserved  and  stuffed  simply  from 
its  beauty.  When  stalking  about  it  closely  resembled  the 
wild  Gallus  hankiva,  but  with  the  red  feathers  rather  darker. 
On  close  comparison  one  considerable  difference  presented 
itself,  namely,  that  the  primary  and  secondary  wing-feathers 
were  edged  with  greenish-black,  instead  of  being  edged,  as  in 
G.  hanldca,  with  fulvous  and  red  tints.  The  space,  also, 
across  the  back,  which  bears  dark-green  feathers,  was  broader, 
and  the  comb  was  blackish.  In  all  other  respects,  even  in 
trifling  details  of  plumage,  there  was  the  closest  accordance. 
Altogether  it  was  a  marvellous  sight  to  compare  this  bird 
first  with  G.  hanhiva,  and  then  with  its  father,  the  glossy 
green-black  Spanish  cock,  and  with  its  diminutive  mother, 
the  white  Silk  hen.  This  case  of  reversion  is  the  more  ex- 
traordinary as  the  Spanish  breed  has  long  been  known  to 
breed  true,  and  no  instance  is  on  record  of  its  throwing  a 
sino;le  red  feather.  The  Silk  hen  likewise  breeds  true,  and 
is  believed  to  be  ancient,  for  Aldrovandi,  before  1600,  alludes 
probably  to  this  breed,  and  described  it  as  covered  with  wool. 
It  is  so  peculiar  in  many  characters  that  some  writers  have 
considered  it  as  specifically  distinct ;  yet,  as  we  now  see, 
when  crossed  with  the  Spanish  fowl,  it  yields  offspring 
closely  resembling  the  wild  G.  hankiva. 

Mr.  U'egetmeier  has  been  so  kind  as  to  repeat,  at  my 
request,  the  cross  between  a  Spanish  cock  and  Silk  hen,  and 
he  obtained  similar  results ;  for  he  thus  raised,  besides  a 
black  hen,  seven  cocks,  all  of  which  were  dark  bodied  with 
more  or  less  orange-red  hackles.  In  the  ensuing  year  he 
paired  the  black  hen  with  one  of  her  brothers,  and  raised 
three  young  cocks,  all  coloured  like  their  father,  and  a  black 
hen  mottled  with  white. 

The  hens  from  the  six  above-described  crosses  showed 
hardly  any  tendenc}^  to  revert  to  the  mottled-brown  plumage 
of  the  female  G.  hankiva :  one  hen,  however,  from  the  white 
Co(jhin,  which  was  at  first  coal-olack,  became  slightly  brown 
or  sooty.     Se\  eral  hens,  which  were  for  a  long  time  snow- 


Chap.  VII.     REVERSION   AND   ANALOGOUS    REVERSION.        255 

v/liite,  acquired  as  tliey  grew  old  a  few  black  feathers.  A 
hen  from  the  white  Game,  which  was  for  a  long  time  entirely 
black  glossed  with  green,  when  two  years  old  had  some  of 
the  primary  wing  feathers  greyish- white,  and  a  multitude  of 
feathers  over  her  body  narrowly  and  symmetrically  tijoped  or 
laced  with  white.  1  had  expected  that  some  of  the  chickens 
whilst  covered  with  down  would  have  assumed  the  longi- 
tudinal ?:tripes  so  general  with  gallinaceous  birds ;  but  this 
did  not  occur  in  a  single  ins.tance.  Two  or  three  alone  were 
reddish-brown  about  their  heads.  I  was  unfortunate  in 
losing  nearl}^  all  the  white  chickens  from  the  first  crosses  ; 
so  that  black  prevailed  with  the  grandchildren ;  but  they 
were  much  diversified  in  colour,  some  being  sooty,  others 
mottled,  and  one  blackish  chicken  had  its  feathers  oddly 
tipped  and  barred  with  brown. 

I  will  here  add  a  few  miscellaneous  facts  connected  with 
reversion,  and  with  the  law  of  analogous  variation.  This 
law  implies,  as  stated  in  a  previous  chaj)ter,  that  the  varieties 
of  one  species  frequently  mock  distinct  but  allied  sjDecies ; 
and  this  fact  is  explained,  according  to  the  views  which  I 
maintain,  on  the  principle  of  allied  species  having  descended 
from  one  primitive  form.  The  M^hite  Silk  fowl  with  black 
skin  and  bones  degenerates,  as  has  been  observed  by  Mr. 
Hewitt  and  Mr.  H.  Orton,  in  our  climate;  that  is,  it  reverts 
to  the  ordinary  colour  of  the  common  fowl  in  its  skin  and 
bones,  due  care  having  been  taken  to  prevent  any  cross.  In 
Germany 30  a  distinct  breed  with  black  bones,  and  with 
black,  not  silky  plumage,  has  likewise  been  observed  to 
degenerate. 

Mr.  Tegetmeier  informs  me  that,  when  distinct  breeds  are 
crossed,  fowls  are  frequently  produced  with  their  feathers 
marked  or  pencilled  by  narrow  transverse  lines  of  a  darker 
colour.  This  may  be  in  part  explained  by  direct  reversion  to 
the  parent-form,  the  Bankiva  hen  ;  for  this  bird  has  all  its 
upper  plumage  finely  mottled  with  dark  and  rufous  brown, 

"  *Die  Hiihner-  iinJ  Pfauenzucht,'  W.  B.  Tegetmeier,  1866.  p.  222.    I  am 

Ulm,  1827,  s.  17.     For  Mr.  Hewitt's  indebted   to  Mr.  Orton  for  a  letter  ou 

statement  with   respect   to  the  white  the  same  subject. 
Silk  fowl,  see  the  '  Poultry  Book,'  by 


256  FOWLS.  Chap.  VTl 

with  the  mottling  partially  and  obscurely  arranged  in  trans- 
verse lines.  But  the  tendency  to  pencilling  is  piobably 
much,  strengthened  by  the  law  of  analogous  variation,  for  the 
hens  of  some  other  species  of  Gallus  are  more  plainly  pencilled, 
and  the  hens  of  many  gallinaceous  birds  belonging  to  other 
genera,  as  the  partridge,  have  pencilled  feathers.  Mr.  Teget- 
meier  has  also  remarked  to  me  that,  although  v^ith  domestic 
pigeons  we  have  so  great  a  diversity  of  colouring,  we  never 
see  either  pencilled  or  spangled  feathers ;  and  this  fact  is 
intelligible  on  the  law  of  analogous  variation,  as  neither  the 
wild  rock  pigeon  nor  any  closely  allied  species  has  such 
feathers.  The  frequent  appearance  of  pencilling  in  crossed 
birds  probably  accounts  for  the  existence  of  "cuckoo"  sub- 
breeds  in  the  Game,  Polish,  Dorking,  Cochin,  Andalusian, 
and  Bantam  breeds.  The  plumage  of  these  birds  is  slaty- 
blue  or  grey,  with  each  feather  transversely  barred  with 
darker  lines,  so  as  to  resemble  in  some  degree  the  plumage 
of  the  cuckoo.  It  is  a  singular  fact,  considering  that  the 
male  of  no  species  of  G alius  is  in  the  least  barred,  that  the 
cuckoodike  plumage  has  often  been  transferred  to  the  male, 
more  especially  in  the  cuckoo  Dorking ;  and  the  fact  is  all  the 
more  singular,  as  in  gold-  and  silver-pencilled  Hamburghs, 
in  which  pencilling  is  characteristic  of  the  breed,  the  male  is 
hardly  at  all  pencilled,  this  kind  of  plumage  being  confined  to 
the  female. 

Another  case  of  analogous  variation  is  the  occurrence  of 
spangled  sub-breeds  of  Hamburgh,  Polish,  Malay,  and  Bantam 
fowls.  Spangled  feathers  have  a  dark  mark,  properly  crescent- 
shaped,  on  their  tips  ;  whilst  pencilled  feathers  have  several 
transverse  bars.  The  spangling  cannot  be  due  to  reversion  to 
G.  hanlcira  ;  nor  does  it  often  follow,  as  I  hear  from  Mr.  Teget- 
meier,  from  crossing  distinct  breeds ;  but  it  is  a  case  of 
analogous  variation,  for  many  gallinaceous  birds  have  spangled 
feathers, — for  instance,  the  common  pheasant.  Hence  spangled 
breeds  are  often  called  "  pheasant  "-fowls.  Another  case  of 
analogous  variation  in  several  domestic  breeds  is  inexplicable  ; 
it  is,  that  the  chickens,  whilst  covered  with  down,  of  the 
black  Spanish,  black  Game,  black  Polish,  and  black  Bantam, 
all  have  white  throats  and  breasts,  and  often  have  some  white 


Chap.  VII-    HE  VERSION   AND    ANALOGOUS   VARIATION.        257 

ou  their  wings.^^  The  editor  of  the  '  Poultry  Clironlcle '  ^^ 
remarks  that  all  the  breeds  which  properly  have  red  ear- 
lappets  occasionally  produce  birds  with  white  ear-lappets. 
This  remark  more  especially  applies  to  the  Game  breed, 
which  of  all  comes  nearest  to  the  G.  hankiva  ;  and  we  have 
seen  that  with  this  species  living  in  a  state  of  nature,  the 
ear-lappets  vary  in  colour,  being  red  in  the  Malayan  countries, 
and  generally,  but  not  invariably,  white  in  India. 

In  concluding  this  part  of  my  subject,  I  may  repeat 
that  there  exists  one  widely-ranging,  varying,  and  common 
species  of  Gallus,  namely,  G.  hankiva,  which  can  be  tamed, 
produces  fertile  offspring  when  crossed  with  common  fowls, 
and  closely  resembles  in  its  whole  structure,  plumage,  and 
voice  the  Game  breed  ;  hence  it  may  be  safely  ranked  as  the 
parent  of  this,  the  most  typical  domesticated  breed.  We 
have  seen  that  there  is  much  difficulty  in  believing  that 
other,  now  unknown,  species  have  been  the  parents  of  the 
other  domestic  breeds.  We  know  that  all  the  breeds  are 
most  closely  allied,  as  shown  by  their  similarity  in  most 
points  of  structure  and  in  habits,  and  by  the  analogous 
manner  in  which  they  vary.  We  have  also  seen  that  several 
of  the  most  distinct  breeds  occasionally  or  habitualty  closely 
resemble  in  plumage  G.  hankiva,  and  that  the  crossed  offspring 
of  other  breeds,  which  are  not  thus  coloured,  show  a  stronger 
or  weaker  tendency  to  revert  to  this  same  plumage.  Some  of 
the  breeds,  which  appear  the  most  distinct  and  the  least  likely 
to  have  proceeded  from  G.  hankiva,  such  as  Polish  fowls,  with 
their  protuberant  and  little  ossified  skulls,  and.  Cochins,  with 
their  imperfect  tail  and  small  wings,  bear  in  these  characters 
the  plain  marks  of  their  artificial  origin.  We  know  well  that 
of  late  years  methodical  selection  has  greatly  improved  and 
fixed  many  characters ;  and  we  have  every  reason  to  believe 
that  unconscious  selection,  carried  on  for  many  generations, 
will  have  steadily  augmented  each  new  peculiarit}^,  and  thus 
have  given  rise  to  new  breeds.  As  soon  as  two  or  three 
breeds  were  once  formed,  crossing  would  come  into  play  in 

^*  Dixon,    '  Ornamental    and    Do-       *  Prize  Poultry,'  p.  260. 
mestic  Poultry,*   pp.    253,  324,  335.  ^2  i  Poultry   Chronicle,'  vol.  ii. 

For    game   fowls,   see    Ferguson    on       71. 

18 


258  FOWLS.  Chap.  VTI. 

olianging  their  character  and  in  increasing  their  number. 
Brahma  Pootras,  according  to  an  account  lately  published  in 
America,  offer  a  good  instance  of  a  breed,  lately  formed  by 
a  cross,  which  can  be  truly  propagated.  The  well-known 
Sebright  Bantams  offer  another  and  similar  instance.  Hence 
it  may  be  concluded  that  not  only  the  Game-breed  but  that 
all  our  breeds  are  j^robably  the  descendants  of  the  Malayan 
or  Indian  variety  of  G.  hanh'va.  If  so,  this  species  has  varied 
greatly  since  it  was  first  domesticated  ;  but  there  has  been 
ample  time,  as  we  shall  now  show. 

Historij  of  the  Fowl. — Rutimeyer  found  no  remains  of  the 
fowl  in  the  ancient  Swiss  lake-dwellings;  but,  according  to 
Jeitteles,^^  such  have  certainly  since  lieon  found  associated 
with  extinct  animals  and  prehistoric  remains.  It  is,  there- 
fore a  strange  fact  that  the  fowl  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Old 
Testament,  nor  figured  on  the  ancient  Egyptian  monuments. 
It  is  not  referred  to  by  Homer  or  Hesiod  (about  900  B.C.) ; 
but  is  mentioned  by  Theognis  and  Aristophanes  between 
400  and  500  B.C.  It  is  figured  on  some  of  the  Babjdonian 
cylinders,  between  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries  B.C.,  of 
which  Mr,  Layard  sent  me  an  impression ;  and  on  the  Harp}' 
'J  omb  in  Lycia,  about  600  B.C. :  so  that  the  fowl  apparently 
reached  Europe  in  a  domesticated  condition  somewhere  about 
the  sixth  century  B.C.  It  had  travelled  still  farther  westward 
by  the  time  of  the  Christian  era,  for  it  was  found  in  Britain 

^^    'Die    vorgeschichtlichen   Alter-  aversion.     The  natives  of  the  Pellew 

thfimer,'    II.  Theil,    1872,  p.   5.     Dr.  Islands  would  not  eat  the  fowl,  nor  will 

Pickering,  in  his  '  Races  of  Man,'  the  Indians  in  some  parts  of  S. 
1850,  p.  y74,  says  that  the  head  and     '  America.      For  the  ancient  history  of 

neck  of  a  fowl  is  carried  in  a  Tribute-  the  fowl,  see  also  Volz,  '  Beitr'age  zur 

procession  to  Thoutmousis  III.  (1445  Culturgeschichte,'   1852,   s.   77;   and 

B.C.) ;  but  Mr.  Birch   of  the   British  Isid   Geoffroy  St.-Hilaire,  '  Hist.   Nat 

Museum  doubts    whether   the  figure  Gen.,'  torn.  iii.  p.  61.     Mr.  Crawfurd 

ran    be    identified    as   the   head  of  a  has  given  an  admirable  history  of  the 

fowl.     Some  caution  is  necessary  with  fowl   in  his   paper  '  On  the   Relation 

reference    to    the   absence   of   figures  of  Domesticated  Animals  to  Civilisa- 

of  the  fowl   on  the  ancient  Egyptian  tion,'  read  before  the  Brit.    Assoc   at 

monuments,  on  account  of  the  strong  Oxford    in    1860,    and    since    printed 

and  widely  prevalent  prejudice  against  separately.     I  quote  from  him  on  the 

this    bird.      I    am    informed    by    the  Greek    poet    Theognis,    and     on    the 

Rev.  S.  Erhardt  that  on  the  east  coast  Harpy    Tomb    described    by    Sir    C, 

of  Africa,  from  4°  to  6°  south  of  the  Fellowes.     I  quote  from   a   letter  ot" 

equator,  most  of  the  pagan  tribes  at  Mr.  Blyth's  with  respect  to  the  Insti- 

the    present    day    hold    the    fowl    in  tntfs  of  Mann, 


Cjiap.  Vn.  THEIR    HISTORY.  259 

by  Julius  Ca3sar.  In  India  it  must  have  been  domesticatetl 
when  the  Institutes  of  Manu  were  written,  that  is,  according 
to  Sir  W.  Jones,  1200  B.C.,  but,  according  to  the  later  authority 
of  Mr.  H.  Wilson,  only  800  B.C.,  for  the  domestic  fowl  is 
forbidden,  whilst  the  wild  is  permitted  to  be  eaten.  If,  as 
before  remarked,  we  ma}^  trust  the  old  Chinese  Encyclopaedia, 
the  fowl  must  have  been  domesticated  several  centuries 
earlier,  as  it  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  from  the  West 
into  China  1400  B.C. 

Sufficient  materials  do  not  exist  for  tracing  the  history 
of  the  separate  breeds.  About  the  commencement  of  the 
Christian  era.  Columella  mentions  a  five-toed  fighting  breed, 
and  some  provincial  breeds  ;  but  we  know  nothing  about 
them.  He  also  alludes  to  dwarf  fowls  ;  but  these  cannot 
have  been  the  same  with  our  Bantams,  which,  as  Mr. 
Crawfurd  has  shown,  were  imported  from  Japan  into  Bantam 
in  Java.  A  dwarf  fowl,  probably  the  true  Bantam,  is  re- 
ferred to  in  an  old  Japanese  Encyclopsedia,  as  I  am  informed 
by  Mr.  Birch.  In  the  Chinese  Encyclopaedia  published  in 
150(3,  but  compiled  from  various  sources,  some  of  high 
antiquity,  seven  breeds  are  mentioned,  including  what  we 
should  now  call  Jumpers  or  Creepers,  and  likewise  fowls  with 
black  feathers,  bones,  and  flesh.  In  1600  Aldrovandi  de- 
scribes seven  or  eight  breeds  of  fowls,  and  this  is  the  most 
ancient  record  from  which  the  age  of  our  European  breeds 
can  be  inferred.  The  Gallus  turcicus  certainly  seems  to  be  a 
pencilled  Hamburgh ;  but  Mr.  Brent,  a  most  capable  judge, 
thinks  that  Aldrovandi  "  evidently  figured  what  he  happened 
to  see,  and  not  the  best  of  the  breed."  Mr.  Brent,  indeed, 
considers  all  Aldrovandi's  fowls  as  of  impure  breed ;  but  it  is 
a  far  more  probable  view  that  all  our  breeds  have  been  much 
improved  and  modified  since  his  time;  for,  as  he  went  to  the 
expense  of  so  many  figures,  he  probably  would  have  secured 
characteristic  specimens.  The  Silk  fowl,  however,  probably 
then  existed  in  its  present  state,  as  did  almost  certainly  the 
fowl  with  frizzled  or  reversed  feathers.    Mr.  Dixon  ^"^  considers 

^■^  '  Ornamental  aud  Domestic  Poul-  312.  For  Golden  Hamburghs,  see 
try,'  1847,  p.  185 ;  for  passages  Alom's  '  Natural  History  of  Birds, 
translatf'i    from    Columella,    see  p.       3  vols.,  with  plates  1731-3S 


260  FOWLS.  Chap.  Til. 

Aldrovandi's  Paduan  fowl  as  "  a  variety  of  the  Polisli," 
whereas  Mr.  Brent  believes  it  to  have  been  more  nearly  allied 
to  the  Malay.  The  anatomical  peculiarities  of  the  skull  of  the 
Polish  breed  were  noticed  by  P.  Borelli  in  1656.  I  may  add 
that  in  1737  one  Polish  sub-breed,  viz.,  the  Golden-spaiigled, 
was  known ;  but  judging  from  Albin's  description,  the  comb 
was  then  larger,  the  crest  of  feathers  much  smaller,  the  breast 
more  coarsely  spotted,  and  the  stomach  and  thighs  much 
blacker:  a  Golden-spangled  Polish  fowl  in  this  condition 
would  now  be  of  no  value. 

Differences  in  external  and  Internal  Structure  between  the 
Breeds :  Individual  Variability. — Fowls  have  been  exposed  to 
diversified  conditions  of  life,  and  as  we  have  just  seen  there 
has  been  ample  time  for  much  variability  and  for  the  slow 
action  of  unconscious  selection.  As  there  are  good  grounds 
for  believing  that  all  the  breeds  are  descended  from  Gallus 
banhiva,  it  will  be  worth  while  to  describe  in  some  detail  the 
chief  points  of  difference.  Beginning  with  the  eggs  and 
chickens,  I  will  pass  on  to  their  secondary  sexual  characters, 
and  then  to  their  differences  in  external  structure  and  in  the 
skeleton.  I  enter  on  the  following  details  chiefl}^  to  show 
how  variable  almost  every  character  has  become  under 
domestication. 

Eggs. — Mr.  Dixon  remarks ^^  that  "to  every  hen  belongs  an 
individual  peculiarity  in  the  form,  colour,  and  size  of  her  egg,  which 
never  changes  during  her  life-time,  so  long  as  she  remains  in 
health,  and  which  is  as  well  known  to  those  who  are  in  the  habit  of 
taking  her  produce,  as  the  hand- writing  of  their  nearest  acquain- 
tance." I  believe  that  this  is  generally  true,  and  that,  if  no  great 
number  of  hens  be  kept,  the  eggs  of  each  can  almost  always  be  re- 
cognised. The  eggs  of  differently  sized  breeds  naturally  differ  much 
in  size ;  but  apparently,  not  always  in  strict  relation  to  the  size  ot 
the  hen :  thus  the  Malay  is  a  larger  bird  than  the  Spanish,  but 
geriercdly  she  produces  not  such  large  eggs;  white  Bantams  are 
said  to  lay  smaller  eggs  than  other  Bantams  f^  white  Cochins,  on 
the  other  hand,  as  I  hear  from  Mr.  Tegetmeier,  certainly  lay  larger 
eggs  than  buff  Cochins.     The  eggs,  however,  of  the  different  breeds 


'^  *  Ornamental  and  Domestic  Poul-  informed,  cannot  generally  be  trusted 

try,'  p.  152.  He  gives,  however,  figures  and  much 

36  Ferguson  on  '  Rare  Prize  Po-il-  information  on  eggs.     See  pp.  34  and 

try,'   p.   297       This    writer,    I    am  235  on  the  eggs  of  the  Game  fowl. 


CliAP.  VII.     DIFFERENCES   BETWEEN   THE    BEEEDS.  2G1 

vary  considerably  in  character ;  for  instance,  Mr.  Ballance  states  ^^ 
that  his  Malay  "  pullets  of  last  year  laid  eggs  equal  in  size  to  those 
of  any  duck,  and  other  Malay  hens,  two  or  three  years  old,  laid 
eggs  very  little  larger  than  a  good  sized  Bantam's  egg.  Some  were 
as  white  as  a  Spanish  hen's  egg,  and  others  varied  from  a  light  cream- 
colour  to  a  deep  rich  buff,  or  even  to  a  brown.^'  The  shape  also 
varies,  the  two  ends  being  much  more  equally  rounded  in  Cochins 
than  in  Games  or  Polish.  Spanish  fowls  lay  smoother  eggs  than 
Cochins,  of  which  the  eggs  are  generally  granulated.  The  shell  in 
this  latter  breed,  and  more  especially  in  Malays  is  apt  to  be  thicker 
than  in  Games  or  Spanish ;  but  the  Minorcas,  a  sub-breed  of  Sj)anish, 
are  said  to  lay  harder  eggs  than  true  Spanish.^^  The  colour  di tiers 
considerably, — the  Cochins  laying  buff-coloured  eggs ;  the  Malays  a 
paler  variable  buff;  and  Games  a  still  paler  buff.  It  would  appear 
that  darker-coloured  eggs  characterise  the  breeds  which  have  lately 
come  from  the  East,  or  are  still  closely  allied  to  those  now  living 
there.  The  colour  of  the  yolk,  according  to  Ferguson,  as  well  as  of 
the  shell,  differs  slightly  in  the  sub-breeds  of  the  Game.  I  am 
also  informed  by  Mr.  Brent  that  dark  partridge-coloured  Cochin 
hens  lay  darker  coloured  eggs  than  the  other  Cochin  sub-breeds. 
The  flavour  and  richness  of  the  egg  certainly  differ  in  different 
breeds.  The  productiveness  of  the  several  breeds  is  very  different. 
Spanish,  Pohsh,  and  Hamburgh  hens  have  lost  the  incubating 
instinct. 

Chickens. — As  the  young  of  almost  all  gallinaceous  birds,  even  of 
the  black  curassow  and  black  grouse,  whilst  covered  with  down,  are 
longitudinally  strijjed  on  the  back, — of  which  character,  when  adult, 
neither  sex  retains  a  trace, — it  might  have  been  expected  that  the 
chickens  of  all  our  domestic  fowls  would  have  been  similarly 
striped.^^  This  could,  however,  hardly  have  been  expected,  when 
the  adult  plumage  in  both  sexes  has  undergone  so  great  a  change 
as  to  be  wholly  white  or  black.  In  white  fowls  of  various  breeds  the 
chickens  are  uniformly  yellowish  white,  passing  in  the  black-boned 
Silk  fowl  into  bright  canary-yellow.  This  is  also  generally  the 
case  with  the  chickens  of  white  Cochins,  but  I  hear  from  Mr.  Zurhost 
that  they  are  sometimes  of  a  buff  or  oak  colour,  and  that  all  those 
of  this  latter  colour,  which  were  watched,  turned  out  males.  The 
chickens  of  buff  Cochins  are  of  a  golden-yellow,  easily  distinguishable 
from  the  paler  tint  of  the  white  Cochins,  and  are  often  longitudinally 


'^    See   '  Poultry    Book,'    by    Mr.  Dixon's    *  Ornamental    and    Domestic 

Tegetmeier,  1866,  pp.  81  and  78.  Poultry.'     Mr.  B.  P.  Brent  has  also 

3*    'The   Cottage    Gardener,'    Oct.  communicated  to  me  many  facts  by 

1855,  p.  13.     On  the  thinness  of  the  letter,  as  has  Mr.  Tegetmeier.     I  will 

eggs  of  Game-fowls,  see  Mowbray  on  in  each  case  mark   my  authority   by 

Poultry,  7th  edit.,  p.  13.  the  name  within  brackets.     For  the 

^*  My  information,  which  is   very  chickens    of     white     Silk-fowls,    see 

far  from  perfect,  on  chickens  in  the  Tegetmeier's  '  Poultry  Book,'  1866,  p. 

down,   is  derived   chiefly   from    Mr.  221. 


262  FOWLS.  Chap.  VIL 

streaked  with  dark  shades:  the  chickens  of  silver-cinnamon 
Cochins  are  almost  always  of  a  bnflf  colour.  The  chickens  of  the 
white  Game  and  white  Dorking  breeds,  when  held  in  particular 
lights,  sometimes  exhibit  (on  the  authority  of  Mr,  Brent)  faint  traces 
of  longitudinal  stripes.  Fowls  which  are  entirely  black,  namely, 
Spanish,  black  Game,  black  Polish,  and  black  Bantams,  display  a 
new  character,  for  their  chickens  have  their  breasts  and  throats 
more  or  less  white,  with  sometimes  a  little  white  elsewhere. 
Spanish  chickens  also,  occasionally  (Brent),  have,  where  the  down 
was  white,  their  first  true  feathers  tipped  for  a  time  with  Avhite. 
The  primordially  striped  character  is  retained  by  the  chickens  of 
most  of  the  Game  sub-breeds  (Brent,  Dixon)  ;  by  Dorkings  ;  by  the 
partridge  and  grouse-coloured  sub-breeds  of  Cochins  (Brent),  but 
not,  as  we  have  seen,  by  the  sub-breeds;  by  the  pheasant-Malay 
(Dixon),  but  apparently  not  (at  which  1  am  much  surprised)  by 
other  Malays.  The  following  breeds  and  sub-breeds  are  barely,  or 
not  at  all,  longitudinally  striped:  viz.,  gold  and  silver  pencilled 
Hamburghs,  which  can  hardly  be  distinguished  from  each  other 
(Brent)  in  the  down,  both  having  a  few  dark  spots  on  the  head  and 
rump,  with  occasionally  a  longitudinal  stripe  (Dixon)  on  the  back  of 
the  neck.  1  have  seen  only  one  chicken  of  the  silver-spangUd 
Hamburgh,  and  this  was  obscurely  striped  along  the  back.  Gold- 
spangled  Polish  chickens  (Tegetmeier)  are  of  a  warm  russet  brown ; 
and  silver-spangled  Polish  chickens  are  grey,  sometimes  (Dixon) 
with  dashes  of  ochre  on  the  head,  wings,  and  breast.  Cuckoo  and 
blue-dun  fowls  (Dixon)  are  grey  in  the  down.  The  chickens  of 
Sebright  Bantams  (Dixon)  are  uniformly  dark  brown,  whilst  those 
of  the  brown-breasted  red  Game  Bantam  are  black,  with  some  white 
on  the  throat  and  breast.  From  these  facts  we  see  that  young 
chickens  of  the  different  breeds,  and  even  of  the  same  main  breed, 
differ  much  in  their  downy  plumage ;  and,  although  longitudinal 
stripes  characterise  the  young  of  all  wild  gallinaceous  birds,  they 
disappear  in  several  domestic  breeds.  Perhaps  it  may  be  accepted 
as  a  general  rule  that  the  more  the  adult  plumage  differs  from  that 
of  the  adult  G.  hankiua,  the  more  completely  the  chickens  have 
lost  their  stripes. 

With  respect  to  the  period  of  life  at  which  the  characters 
proper  to  each  breed  first  appear,  it  is  obvious  that  such 
structures  as  additional  toes  must  be  formed  long  before  birth. 
In  Polish  fowls,  the  extraordinary  protuberance  of  the  anterior 
part  of  the  sknll  is  well  developed  before  the  chickens  como 
out  of  the  egg ;  *^  but  the  crest,  which  is  supported  on  the 
protuberance,  is  at  first  feebly  developed,  nor  does  it  attain 

*o  As  I  hear  from  Mr.  Tegetmeier;        crest,    see  '  Poultry    Chronicle,'  vcl. 
see  also  'Pioc.  Zoolog.  Soc'  1356,  p.       ii.  p.  132. 
366.     On  the  late  development  of  the 


CHAr.  VII.  SEXUAL    DIFFEKENCES.  26J? 

its  full  size  until  the  second  year.  The  Spanish  cock  is  pre- 
eminent for  his  magnificent  comb,  and  this  is  developed  at 
an  luiusTially  earl}^  age;  so  that  the  young  males  can  be 
distinguished  from  the  females  when  only  a  few  weeks  old, 
and  therefore  earlier  than  in  other  breeds ;  they  likewise 
crow  very  early,  namely,  when  about  six  weeks  old.  In  the 
Dutch  sub-breed  of  tlie  Spanish  fowl  the  white  ear-la j  pets 
are  developed  earlier  than  in  the  common  Spanish  breed>^ 
Cochins  are  characterised  by  a  small  tail,  and  in  the  young 
cocks  the  tail  is  developed  at  an  unusually  late  period.*^ 
Game  fowls  are  notorious  for  their  pugnacity  ;  and  the  young 
cocks  crow,  clap  their  little  wings,  and  fight  obstinately  with 
each  other,  even  whilst  under  their  mother's  care.'^^  "  I  have 
often  had,"  says  one  author,'^'^  "  whole  broods,  scarcely 
feathered  stone  blind  from  fighting ;  the  rival  couples  moping 
in  corners,  and  renewing  their  battles  on  obtaining  the  first 
ray  of  light."  The  weapons  and  pugnacity  of  all  male  gallina- 
ceous birds  evidently  serve  the  purpose  of  gaining  possession  of 
the  females  ;  so  that  the  tendency  in  our  Game  chickens  to  fight 
at  an  extremely  early  age  is  not  only  useless,  but  injurious, 
as  they  suffer  much  from  their  wounds.  The  training  for 
battle  during  an  early  age  may  be  natural  to  the  wild  Gallus 
bankiua;  but  as  man  during  many  generations  has  gone  on 
selecting  the  most  obstinately  pugnacious  cooks,  it  is  more 
probable  that  their  pugnacity  has  been  unnaturally  increased, 
and  unnaturally  transferred  to  the  young  male  chickens.  In 
the  same  manner,  it  is  probable  that  the  extraordinary  de- 
velopment of  the  comb  in  the  Spanish  cock  has  been  un- 
intentionally transferred  to  the  young  cocks;  for  fancieis 
would  not  care  whether  their  young  birds  had  large  combs, 
but  would  select  for  breeding  the  adults  which  had  the  finest 
combs,  whether  or  not  developed  at  an  early  period.  The 
last  point  which  need  here  be  noticed  is  that,  though  the 
chickens  of  Spanish  and  Malay  fowls  are  well  covered  with 
down,  the  true  feathers  are  acquired  at  an  unusually  late  age; 

*i  Ou    these   points,    see   'Poultry  tic  Poultry,' p.  273. 

Cliroaicle,'vol.  iii.  p.  166  ;  and  Teget-  ''^  Ferguson    on    Rare    and     Prize 

meier's  '  Poultry  Book,'  1866,  pp.  105  Poultry,  p.  261. 

and  121.  *■*  Mowbray  on  Poultry,  7th  edit, 

^  Dixon,  'Ornamental  and  Domes-  1834,  p.  13, 


2G 1:  FOWLS.  Chap.  VII. 

so  that  for  a  time  the  young  birds  are  partially  naked,  and 
are  liable  to  suffer  from  cold. 

Secondary  Sexual  Characters. — The  tAVO  sexes  in  the  parent- 
form,  the  Gallus  hanMva,  differs  much  in  colour.  In  our 
domestic  breeds  the  difference  is  never  greater,  but  is  often 
less,  and  varies  much  in  degree  even  in  the  sub-breeds  of  the 
same  main  breed.  Thus  in  certain  Game  fowls  the  difference 
is  as  great  as  in  the  parent-form,  whilst  in  the  black  and 
white  sub-breeds  there  is  no  difference  in  plumage.  Mr.  Brent 
informs  me  that  he  has  seen  two  strains  of  black-breasted  red 
Games,  of  which  the  cocks  could  not  be  distinguished,  whilst 
the  hens  in  one  were  partridge-brown  and  in  the  other  fawn- 
brown.  A  similar  case  has  been  observed  in  the  strains  of 
the  brown-breasted  red  Game.  The  hen  of  the '"  duck- winged 
Game  "  is  *'  extremely  beautiful,"  and  differs  much  from  the 
hens  of  all  the  other  Game  sub-breeds  ;  but  generally,  as  with 
the  blue  and  grey  Game  and  with  some  sub-varieties  of  the 
pile  game,  a  moderately  close  relation  may  be  observed 
between  the  males  and  females  in  the  variation  of  their 
plumage.*^  A  similar  relation  is  also  evident  when  we  com- 
pare the  several  varieties  of  Cochins.  In  the  two  sexes  of 
gold  and  silver-spangled  and  of  buff  Polish  fowls,  there  is 
much  general  similarity  in  the  colouring  and  marks  of  the 
whole  plumage,  excepting  of  course  in  the  hackles,  crest,  and 
beard.  In  spangled  Hamburghs,  there  is  likewise  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  similarity  between  the  two  sexes.  In 
pencilled  Hamburghs,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  much  dis- 
similarity ;  the  pencilling  which  is  characteristic  of  the  hens 
being  almost  absent  in  the  males  of  both  the  golden  and 
silver  varieties.  But,  as  we  have  already  seen,  it  cannot  be 
given  as  a  general  rule  that  male  fowls  never  have  pencilled 
feathers,  for  Cuckoo  Dorkings  are  "  remarkable  from  having 
nearly  similar  markings  in  both  sexes." 

It  is  a  singular  fact  that  the  males  in  certain  sub-breeds 
have  lost  some  of  their  secondary  masculine  characters,  .and 
from  their  close  resemblage  in  plumage  to  the  females,  are 
often  called  hennies.  There  is  much  diversity  of  opinion 
whether  these  males  are  in  any  degree  sterile  ;  that  they  some- 

*'  See  the  mil  description  of  the  meier's  '  Poultry  Book,' 1866,  p.  131. 
varieties  of  the  Game-breed,  in  Teget-       For  Cuckoo  Dorkings,  p.  97. 


CnAP.  VIL  SEXUAL   DIFFERENCES.  265 

times  are  partially  sterile  seems  clear,*^  but  this  may  have 
been  caused  by  too  close  interbreeding.  That  they  are  not 
quite  sterile,  and  that  the  whole  case  is  widely  different  from 
that  of  old  females  assuming  masculine  characters,  is  evident 
from  several  of  these  hen-like  sub-breeds  having  been  long 
propagated.  The  males  and  females  of  gold  and  silver-laced 
Sebright  Bantams  can  be  barely  distinguished  from  each 
other,  except  by  their  combs,  wattles,  and  spurs,  for  they  are 
coloured  alike,  and  the  males  have  not  hackles,  nor  the 
flowing  sickle- like  tail-feathers.  A  hen-tailed  sub-breed  of 
Hamburghs  was  recently  much  esteemed.  There  is  also  a 
breed  of  Game-fowls,  in  which  the  males  and  females  resemble 
each  other  so  closely  that  the  cocks  have  often  mistaken  their 
hen  feathered  opponents  in  the  cock-pit  for  real  hens,  and  by 
the  mistake  have  lost  their  lives.*^  The  cocks,  thoiigh 
dressed  in  the  feathers  of  the  hen,  "  are  high-spirited  birds, 
and  their  courage  has  been  often  proved  :  "  an  engraving 
even  has  been  published  of  one  celebrated  hen-tailed  victor. 
Mr.  Tegetmeier  *^  has  recorded  the  remarkable  case  of  a 
brown-breasted  red  Game  cock  which,  after  assuming  its 
perfect  masculine  plumage,  became  hen-feathered  in  the 
autumn  of  the  following  year ;  but  he  did  not  lose  voice, 
spurs,  strength,  nor  productiveness.  This  bird  has  now 
retained  the  same  character  during  five  seasons,  and  has 
begot  both  hen-feathered  and  male-feathered  offspring.  Mr. 
Grantley  F.  Berkeley  relates  the  still  more  singular  case  of  a 
celebrated  strain  of  "  polecat  Game  fowls,"  which  produced  in 
nearly  every  brood  a  single  hen-cock.  "  The  great  peculiarity 
in  one  of  these  birds  was  that  he,  as  the  seasons  succeeded 
each  other,  was  not  always  a  hen-cock,  and  not  alwaj^s  of  the 
colour  called  the  polecat,  which  is  black.  From  the  polecat 
and  hen-cock  feather  in  one  season  he  moulted  to  a  full  male- 
plumaged  black-breasted  red,  and  in  the  following  joslt  he 
returned  to  the  former  feather."  *^ 

■"^  Mr.     Hewitt    in      Tegetmeier's  a-dozen  cocks  thus  sacrificed. 
♦Poultry  Book,'   1866,   pp.    246    and  **     'Proceedings    of    Zoolog.    Soc' 

156.     For  hen-tailed  game-cocks,  see  March,  1861,  p.  1U2.     The  engraving 

p.  131.  of  the  hen-tailed  cock   just  alluded  to 

"  'The  Field,'  April   20th,   1861,  was  exhibited  before  the  Society. 
The  writer   says   he   has   seen   half-  *»  'The  Field,' April  20th,  1861. 


266  FOWLS.  Chap.  VTI 

I  ha^e  remarked  in  my  '  Origin  of  Species'  that  secondary 
sexual  cliaracters  are  apt  to  differ  much  in  the  species  of  the 
same  genus,  and  to  be  unusually  variable  in  the  indiAdduals 
of  the  same  species.  So  it  is  with  the  breeds  of  the  fowl,  as 
we  have  already  seen,  as  far  as  the  colour  of  plumage  is  con- 
cerned, and  so  it  is  with  the  other  secondary  sexual  characters. 
Firstly,  the  comb  differs  much  in  the  various  breeds, ^^  and  its 
form  is  eminently  characteristic  of  each  Ivind,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Dorkiiigs,  in  which  the  form  has  not  been  as 
yet  determined  on  by  fanciers,  and  fixed  b}^  selection.  A  single, 
deeply- serrated  comb  is  the  t3'pical  and  most  common  form. 
It  differs  much  in  size,  being  immensely  developed  in  Spanish 
fowls ;  and  in  a  local  breed  called  Eed-caps,  it  is  sometimes 
"  upwards  of  three  inches  in  breadth  at  the  front,  and  more 
than  four  inches  in  length,  measured  to  the  end  of  the  peak 
behind."  °^  In  some  breeds  the  comb  is  d(;uble,  and  Avhen  the 
two  ends  are  cemented  together  it  forms  a  "  cup-comb ;  "  in 
the  "  rose  comb "  it  is  depressed,  covered  wdtli  small  pro- 
jections, and  produced  backwards  ;  in  the  horned  and  creve- 
coBur  fowl  it  is  produced  into  two  horns ;  it  is  triple  in  the 
pea-combed  Brahmas,  short  and  truncated  in  the  Mala^'-s, 
and  absent  in  the  Guelderlands.  In  the  tasselled  Game  a  few 
long  feathers  rise  from  the  back  of  the  comb  :  in  many  breeds 
a  crest  of  feathers  replaces  the  comb.  The  crest,  when  little 
developed,  arises  irom  a  fleshy  mass,  but,  when  much  deve- 
loped,  from  a  hemispherical  protuberance  of  the  skull.  In 
the  best  Polish  fowls  it  is  so  largel}^  developed,  that  I  have 
seen  birds  which  could  hardly  pick  up  their  food ;  and  a 
German  writer  asserts  ^^  that  they  are  in  consequence  liable 
to  be  struck  by  hawks.  Monstrous  structures  of  this  kind 
would  thus  be  suppressed  in  a  state  of  nature.  The  wattles, 
also,  vary  much  in  size,  being  small  in  Malays  and  some 
other  breeds  ;  in  certain  Polish  sub-breeds  they  are  replaced 
by  a  great  tuft  of  feathers  called  a  beard. 

The  hackles  do  not  differ  much  in  the  various  breeds,  but 


»»  1  am  much  indebted  to  Mr.  Brent  **  The   '  Poultry  Book,'   by  Teget- 

for  an  account,  with  sketches,  of  all  meier,  1866,  p.  234. 
the  variations  of  the  comb  known  to  ^^  '  Die  Hiihner-  und  Pfaueozuoht, 

nim,  and  likewise  with  respect  to  the  1827,  s.  11. 
tail  as  presently  to  be  given. 


Chai\Y11.  sexual  differences.  267 

are  sliort  and  stiff  in  Malays,  and  absent  in  Hennies.  As  in 
some  orders  male  birds  display  extraordinarily-shaped  feathers, 
such  as  naked  shafts  with  discs  at  the  end,  &c.,  the  following 
case  may  be  worth  odving.  In  the  wild  Galliis  hanJciva  and  in 
our  domestic  fowls,  the  barbs  which  arise  from  each  side  of 
the  extremities  of  the  hackles  are  naked  or  not  clothed  with 
barbules,  so  that  they  resemble  bristles ;  but  Mr,  Brent  sent 
me  some  scapular  hackles  from  a  young  Birchen  Duokwing 
Game  cock,  in  which  the  naked  barbs  became  densely  re- 
clothed  with  barbules  towards  their  tips ;  so  that  these  tips, 
which  were  dark  coloured  with  a  metallic  lustre,  were  sepa- 
rated from  the  lower  jDarts  by  a  symmetrically-shaped  trans- 
parent zone  formed  of  the  naked  j)ortions  of  the  barbs.  Hence 
the  coloured  tips  appeared  like  little  separate  metallic  discs. 

The  sickle-feathers  in  the  tail,  of  which  there  are  three 
pair,  and  which  are  eminently  characteristic  of  the  male  sex, 
diifer  much  in  the  various  breeds.  They  are  scimitar-shaped 
in  some  Hambuvghs,  instead  of  being  long  and  flowing  as  in 
the  typical  breeds.  Ihey  are  extremely  short  in  Cochins, 
and  are  not  at  all  develojoed  in  Hennies.  They  are  carried, 
together  with  the  whole  tail,  erect  in  Dorkings  and  Games ; 
but  droop  much  in  Malays  and  in  some  Cochins.  Sultans  are 
characterised  by  an  additional  number  of  lateral  sickle - 
feathers.  The  spurs  vary  much,  being  placed  higher  or  lower 
on  the  shank ;  being  extremely  long  and  sharp  in  Games,  and 
blunt  and  short  in  Cochins.  These  latter  birds  seem  aware 
that  their  spurs  are  not  efficient  weapons ;  for  though  they 
occasionally  use  them,  they  more  frequently  fight,  as  I  am 
informed  by  Mr.  Tegetmeier,  by  seizing  and  shaking  each 
other  with  their  beaks  In  some  Indian  Game  cocks,  received 
by  Mr.  Brent  from  Germany,  there  are,  as  he  informs  me, 
three,  four,  or  even  five  spurs  on  each  leg.  Some  Dorkings 
also  have  two  spurs  on  each  leg ;  ^^  and  in  birds  of  this  breed 
the  spur  is  often  placed  almost  on  the  outside  of  the  leg. 
Double  spurs  are  mentioned  in  an  ancient  Chinese  Ency- 
clopgedia.     Their  occurrence  may  be  considered  as  a  case  of 

*'  'Poultry  Chronicle,'  vol.  i.  p.  position  of  the  spurs  in  Dorkings,  see 
b9b,  Mr.  Brent  has  informed  me  of  'Cottage  Gardener,'  Sept.  18th,  18G0, 
the  same  tact.     With  respect  to  the       p.  380. 


268  FOWLS.  Chap.  VII. 

analogous   variation,    for  some  wild  gallinaceous  birds,  for 
instance,  the  Polyplectron,  have  double  spurs. 

Judging  from  the  differences  which  generally  distinguish 
the  sexes  in  the  Gallinaceae,  certain  characters  in  our  domestic 
fowls  appear  to  have  been  transferred  from  the  one  sex  to  the 
other.  In  all  the  species  (except  in  Turnix),  when  there  is 
any  conspicuous  difference  in  plumage  between  the  male  and 
female,  the  male  is  alwa3"s  the  most  beautiful ;  but  in  golden- 
spangled  Hamburghs  the  hen  is  equally  beautiful  with  the 
cock,  and  incomparably  more  beautiful  than  the  hen  in  any 
natural  species  of  G alius;  so  that  here  a  masculine  character 
has  been  transferred  to  the  female.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
Cuckoo  Dorkings  and  in  other  cuckoo  breeds  the  pencilling, 
which  in  Gallus  is  a  female  attribute,  has  been  transferred 
to  the  male  :  nor,  on  the  principle  of  analogous  variation,  is 
this  transference  surprising,  as  the  males  in  many  gallinaceous 
genera  are  barred  or  pencilled.  With  most  of  these  birds 
head  ornaments  of  all  kinds  are  more  fully  developed  in  the 
male  than  in  the  female;  but  in  Polish  fowls  the  crest  or 
top  knot,  which  in  the  male  replaces  the  comb,  is  equally 
developed  in  both  sexes.  In  the  males  of  certain  other  sub- 
breeds,  which  from  the  hen  having  a  small  crest,  are  called 
lark-crested,  "  a  single  upright  comb  sometimes  almost  en- 
tirely takes  the  place  of  the  crest."  ^*  From  this  latter  case, 
and  more  especially  from  some  facts  presently  to  be  given 
with  respect  to  the  protuberance  of  the  skull  in  Polish 
fowls,  the  crest  in  this  breed  must  be  viewed  as  a  feminine 
character  which  has  been  transferred  to  the  male.  In  tho 
Spanish  breed  the  male,  as  we  know,  has  an  immense  comb, 
and  this  has  been  partially  transferred  to  the  female,  for  her 
comb  is  unusually  large,  though  not  upright.  In  Game 
fowls  the  bold  and  savage  disposition  of  the  male  has  like- 
wise been  largely  transferred  to  the  female ;  ^^  and  she  some- 
times even  possesses  the  eminently  masculine  character  of 
spurs.    Many  cases  are  on  record  of  fertile  hens  being  furnished 

***  Dixon,  '  Ornamental  and  Domes-  bative,  that  it  is  now  generally  the 

tic  Poultry,'  p.  320.  practice    to    exhibit    each    hen    in   a 

*^  Mr.  Tegetmeier  informs  me  that  separate  pen. 
Game  hens  have  been  found  so  com- 


pHAP.  VII.  EXTERNAL   DIFFERENCES.  269 

with  spurs ;  and  in  Germany,  according  to  Bechstein,^''  the 
spurs  in  the  Silk  hen  are  sometimes  very  long.  He  mentions 
also  another  breed  similarly  characterised,  in  which  the  hens 
are  excellent  layers,  but  are  apt  to  disturb  and  break  their 
eggs  owing  to  their  spurs. 

Mr.  Layard^'^  has  given  an  account  of  a  breed  of  fowls  in 
Ceylon  with  black  skin,  bones,  and  wattle,  but  with  ordinary 
feathers,  and  which  cannot  "  be  more  aptly  described  than  by 
comparing  them  to  a  white  fowl  drawn  down  a  sooty  chimney ; 
it  is,  however,"  adds  Mr.  Layard,  "  a  remarkable  fact  that  a 
male  bird  of  the  pure  sooty  variety  is  almost  as  rare  as  a 
tortoise-shell  tom-cat."  Mr.  Blyth  found  the  same  rule  to 
hold  good  with  this  breed  near  Calcutta.  The  males  and 
females,  on  the  other  hand,  of  the  black-boned  European 
breed,  with  silky  feathers,  do  not  differ  from  each  other;  so 
that  in  the  one  breed,  black  skin  and  bones  and  the  same 
kind  of  plumage  are  common  to  both  sexes,  whilst  in  the  other 
breed,  these  characters  are  confined  to  the  female  sex. 

At  the  present  day  all  the  breeds  of  Polish  fowls  have  the 
great  bony  protuberance  on  their  skulls,  which  includes  part 
of  the  brain  and  supports  the  crest,  equally  developed  in  both 
sexes.  But  formerly  in  Germany  the  skull  of  the  hen  alone 
was  protuberant :  Blumenbach,^^  who  particularly  attended 
to  abnormal  peculiarities  in  domestic  animals,  states,  in  1805, 
that  this  was  the  case;  and  Bechstein  had  previously,  in 
1793,  observed  the  same  fact.  This  latter  author  has  care- 
fully described  the  effects  on  the  skull  of  a  crest  not  only  in 
the  case  of  fowls,  but  of  ducks,  geese,  and  canaries.  He  states 
that  with  fowls,  when  the  crest  is  not  much  developed,  it  is 
supported  on  a  fatty  mass ;  but  when  much  developed,  it  is 
always  supported  on  a  bony  protuberance  of  variable  size. 

^^  *  Naturgeschichte  Deutschlauds,'  count,  has   disputed  the  accuracy  of 

Band  iii.  (1793),  s,  339,  407,  Blumenbach's  statement.     For  Bech- 

^^  On  the  Ornitholog}'  of  Ceylon  in  stein,  sec  '  Naturgeschichte    Deutsch- 

*  Annals  and   Mag.  of  Nat.  History.'  lands,' Band  iii.  (1793),  s.  399,  note.   I 

2nd  series,  vol.  xiv.  (1854),  p.  63.  may  add  that  at  the  first  exhibition  of 

^^  '  Handbuch  der  vergleich.  Ana-  Poultry  at  the  Zoological  Gardens,  in 

toinie,'  1805,  p.  85,  note.    Mr.  Teget-  May,  1845,  I   saw  some   fo^^ls,  called 

meier,  who  gives    in    '  Proc.    Zoolog.  Friezland    fowls,  of  which    the    hens 

Soc,,'  Nov.  25th,  1856,  a  very  interest-  were  crested,  and  the  cocks  furnished 

ing  account  of  the  skulls   of  Polish  with  a  comb, 
fowls,  not  knowing  of  Bechstein's  ac- 


270  FOWLS.  Chap.  VII. 

He  well  describes  tlie  peculiarities  of  this  protuberance ;  lie 
attended  also  to  the  effects  of  the  modified  shape  of  the  brain 
on  the  intellect  of  these  birds,  and  disputes  Tallas'  statement 
that  they  are  stupid.  He  then  exjDressly  remarks  that  he 
never  observed  this  protuberance  in  male  fowls.  Hence  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  this  extraordinary  character  in  the  skulls 
of  Polish  fowls  was  formerly  in  Germany  confined  to  the 
female  sex,  but  has  now  been  transferred  to  the  males,  and 
has  thus  become  common  to  both  sexes. 

External  Differences,  not  connected  with  the  Sexes,  between  the 
JBreeds  and  hetioeen  individual  Birds. 

The  size  of  the  body  differs  greatly.  Mr.  Tegetmeier  has  known 
a  Brahma  to  weigh  17  pounds ;  a  fine  Malay  cock  10  pounds ;  whilst 
a  first-rate  Sebright  Bantam  weighs  hardly  more  than  1  pound. 
During  the  last  20  years  the  size  of  some  of  our  breeds  has  been 
largely  increased  by  methodical  selection,  whilst  that  of  other  breeds 
has  been  much  diminished.  We  have  already  seen  how  greatly 
colour  varies  even  within  the  same  breed;  we  know  that  the  wild 
G.  hankiua  varies  slightly  in  colour  ;  wo  know  that  colour  is  variable 
in  all  our  domestic  animals ;  nevertheless  some  eminent  fanciers 
have  so  little  faith  in  variability,  that  they  have  actually  argued 
that  the  chief  Game  sub-breeds,  which  differ  from  ench  other  in 
nothing  but  colour,  are  descended  from  distinct  wild  species! 
Crossing  often  causes  strange  modification  of  colour.  Mr.  Tegetmeier 
informs  me  that  when  buff  and  white  Cochins  are  crossed,  some  of 
the  chickens  are  almost  invariably  black.  According  to  Mr.  Brent, 
black  and  white  Cochins  occasionally  produce  chickens  of  a  slaty- 
blue  tint ;  and  this  same  tint  results,  as  Mr.  Tegetmeier  tells  me, 
from  crossing  white  Cochins  with  black  Spanish  fowls,  or  white 
Dorkings  with  black  Minorcas.^^  A  good  observer°°  states  that  a 
first-rate  silver-spangled  Hamburgh  hen  gradually  lost  the  most 
characteristic  qualities  of  the  breed,  for  the  black  lacing  to  her 
feathers  disappeared,  and  her  legs  changed  from  leaden-blue  to  white : 
but  what  makes  the  case  remarkable  is,  that  this  tendency  ran  in  the 
blood  for  her  sister  changed  in  a  similar  but  less  strongly  marked 
manner ;  and  chickens  produced  from  this  latter  hen  were  at  first 
almost  pure  white,  "but  on  moulting  acquired  black  colours  and 
some  spangled  feathers  with  almost  obliterated  markings ;''  so  that 
a  new  variety  arose  in  this  singular  manner.  The  skin  in  the 
different  breeds  differs  much  in  colour,  being  white  in  common  kinds, 
yellow  in  Malays  and  Cochins,  and  black  in  Silk  fowls ;  thus  mocking, 

*'  '  Cottage  Gardener,'  Jan.  3rd,  before  the  Dublin  Nat.  Hist.  Soc, 
I860,  p.  218.  quoted  in  'Cottage  Gardener,'  1856, 

'*''  Mr.   Williams,  in  a  paper  read       p.  161. 


CuAP.  VIL  EXTERNAL    DIFFERENCES.  271 

as  M.  Gorlron  ^^  remarks  the  three  principal  types  of  skin  in  man- 
kind. The  same  author  adds  that,  as  different  kinds  of  fowls  living 
in  distant  and  isolated  parts  of  the  world  have  black  skin  and  bones, 
this  colour  must  have  appeared  at  various  times  and  places. 

The  shayje  and  carriage  of  the  body,  and  the  sliape  of  the  head 
differ  much.  The  beak  varies  slightly  in  length  and  curvature,  but 
incomparably  less  than  with  pigeons.  In  most  crested  fowls  the 
nostrils  offer  a  remarkable  peculiarity  in  being  raised  with  a  cres- 
centic  outline.  The  primary  wing-feathers  are  short  in  Cochins ;  in 
a  male,  which  must  have  been  more  than  twice  as  heavy  as  G. 
hankiva,  these  feathers  were  in  both  birds  of  the  same  length.  I 
have  counted,  with  Mr.  Tegetmeier's  aid,  the  primary  wing- feathers 
in  thirteen  cocks  and  hens  of  various  breeds ;  in  four  of  them, 
namely  in  two  Hamburghs,  a  Cochin,  and  Game  bantam,  there  were 
iO,  instead  of  the  normal  number  9  ;  but  in  counting  tiiese  feathers 
I  have  followed  the  practice  of  fanciers,  and  have  hot  included  the 
first  minute  primary  feather,  barely  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in 
length.  These  feathers  differ  considerably  in  relative  length,  the 
fourth,  or  the  fifth,  or  the  sixth,  being  the  longest;  with  the  third 
either  equal  to,  or  considerably  shorter  than  the  fifth.  In  wild 
gallinaceous  species  the  relative  length  and  number  of  the  main 
wing  and  tail-feathers  are  extremely  constant. 

The  tail  differs  much  in  ercctness  and  size,  being  small  in  Malays 
and  very  small  in  Cochins.  In  thirteen  fowls  of  various  breeds 
which  I  have  examined,  five  had  the  normal  number  of  M  feathers, 
including  in  this  number  the  two  middle  sickle-feathers;  six  others 
(viz.  a  Caflre  cock,  Gold-spangled  Polish  cock,  Cochin  hen.  Sultan 
hen,  Game  hen  and  Malay  hen  had  16  ;  and  two  (an  old  Cochin 
cock  and  Malay  hen)  had  17  feathers.  The  rumpless  fowl  has  no  tail 
and  in  one  which  I  possessed  there  w^as  no  oil-gland ;  but  this 
bird  though  the  os  coccygis  was  extremely  imperfect,  had  a  vestige 
of  a  tail  with  two  rather  long  feathers  in  the  position  of  the  outer 
caudals.  This  bird  came  from  a  family  where,  as  I  was  told,  the 
breed  had  kept  true  for  twenty  years ;  but  rumpless  fowls  often 
produce  chickens  with  tails."^  An  eminent  physiologist^^  has 
recently  spoken  of  this  breed  as  a  distinct  species  ;  had  he  examined 
the  deformed  state  of  the  os  coccyx  he  would  never  have  come  to 
this  conclusion  ;  he  w^as  probably  misled  by  the  statement,  which  may 
be  found  in  some  works,  that  tailless  fowls  are  wild  in  Ceylon ;  but 
this  statement,  as  I  have  been  assured  by  Mr.  Layard  and  Dr.  Kellaert 
who  have  so  closely  studied  the  birds  of  Ceylon,  is  utterly  false. 

The   tarsi  vary  considerably  in  length,   being  relatively  to  the 


^'   *  De    I'Espece,'    1859,    p.    442.  A    frizzled    fowl    sent    to    me    from 

For    the    occurrence    of    black-boned  Madras  had  black  bones, 

fowls  in   South  America,  see  Roulin,  ^-  Mr.     Hewitt,    in     Tegetmeier's 

In    'Mem.    de    I'Acad.    des    Sciences,*  'Poultry  Book,'  1866,  p.  231. 

t'»m.  vi.  p.   351 ;  and  Azara,  '  Quad-  ^^  Dr.  Broca,  in   Brown-Sequard'^ 

rupedes  du  Paraguay,'  torn.  ii.  p.  324.  '  Journal  de  Phys.,'  torn,  ii.  p.  361. 


272  FOWLS.  Chap.  Vll. 

femur  considerably  longer  in  the  Spanish  and  Frizzled,  and  shorter 
in  the  Silk  and  Bantam  breeds,  than  in  the  wild  G.  baukiva  ;  but  in 
the  latter,  as  we  have  seen,  the  tarsi  vary  in  length.  The  tarsi  are 
often  feathered.  The  feet  in  many  breeds  are  furnished  with 
additional  toes.  Golden-spangled  Polish  fowls  are  said  ^^  to  have 
the  skin  between  their  toes  much  developed :  Mr.  Tegetmeier 
observed  this  in  one  bird,  but  it  was  not  so  in  one  which  I  examined. 
Prof.  Hoffmann  has  sent  me  a  sketch  of  the  feet  of  a  fowl  of  the 
common  breed  at  Giessen,  with  a  web  extending  between  the  three 
toes,,  for  about  a  third  of  their  length.  In  Cochins  the  middle  toe  id 
said  ^^  to  be  nearly  double  the  length  of  the  lateral  toes,  and  there- 
fore much  longer  than  in  G.  hanlHva  or  in  other  fowls ;  but  this  was 
not  the  case  in  two  which  I  examined.  The  nail  of  the  middle  toe 
in  this  same  breed  is  surprisingly  broad  and  flat,  but  in  a  variable 
degree  m  two  birds  which  I  examined;  of  this  structure  in  the  nail 
there  is  only  a  trace  in  G.  hanklva. 

The  voice  differs  slightly,  as  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  Dixon,  in 
almost  every  breed.  The  Malays  ^'  have  a  loud,  deep,  somewhat  pro- 
longed crow,  but  with  considerable  individual  difference.  Colonel 
Sykes  remarks  that  the  domestic  Kulm  cock  in  India  has  not  the 
shrill  clear  pipe  of  the  English  bird,  and  "  his  scale  of  notes  appears 
more  limited."  Dr.  Hooker  was  struck  with  the  "  prolonged  howling 
screech"  of  the  cocks  in  Sikhim.^^  The  crow  of  the  Cochin  is  noto- 
riously and  ludicrously  different  from  that  of  the  common  cock. 
The  disposition  of  the  different  breeds  is  widely  different,  varying 
from  the  savage  and  defiant  temper  of  the  Game-cock  to  the 
extremely  peaceable  temper  of  the  Cochins.  The  latter,  it  has  been 
asserted,  "  graze  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  any  other  varieties." 
The  Spanish  fowls  suffer  more  from  frost  than  other  breeds. 

Before  we  pass  on  to  the  skeleton,  the  degree  of  distinctness 
of  the  several  breeds  from  G.  hanhiva  ought  to  be  noticed. 
Some  writers  speak  of  the  Spanish  as  one  of  the  most  distinct 
breeds,  and  so  it  is  in  general  aspect ;  but  its  characteristic 
differences  are  not  important.  The  Malay  appears  to  me  more 
distinct,  from  its  tall  stature,  small  drooping  tail  with  more 
than  fourteen  tail-feathers,  and  from  its  small  comb  and 
wattles ;  nevertheless,  one  Malay  sub-breed  is  coloured  almost 
exactly  like  G.  hanhiva.  Some  authors  consider  the  Polish 
fowl  as  vei-y  distinct ;  but  this  a  semi-monstrous  breed,  as 
shown  by  the  protuberant  and  irregularly  perforated  skull. 

*•*  Dixon's    '  Ornamental    Poultry,'  ^'''  Ferguson  on  '  Prize  Poultry,'  p. 

p.  825.  87. 

^^  'Poultry    Chronicle,'    vol.    i.   p.  *^^  Col.  Sykes  in 'Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc, 

485.      Tegetrneier's    'Poultry    Book,'  1832,  p.   151.     Dr.  Hooker's  '  Hima- 

1866,    p.    41.     On    Cochins    grazing,  layan  Journals,'  vol.  i.  p.  314. 
ibid.,  p.  46. 


Chap.  VIT.  OSTEOLOGICAL   DIFFEEENCES.  273 

The  Cochin,  from  its  deeply  furrowed  frontal  bones,  peculiarly- 
shaped  occipital  foramen,  short  wing-feathers,  short  tail  con- 
taining more  than  fourteen  feathers,  broad  nail  to  the  middle 
toe,  fluffy  plumage,  rough  and  dark-coloured  eggs,  and  espe- 
cially from  its  peculiai  voice,  is  probably  the  most  distinct  of 
all  the  breeds.  If  any  one  of  our  breeds  has  descended  froni 
some  unknown  species,  distinct  from  G.  hanJciva,  it  is  probably 
the  Cochin  ;  but  the  balance  of  evidence  does  not  favour  thif^ 
view.  All  the  characteristic  differences  of  the  Cochin  breed 
are  more  or  less  variable,  and  may  be  detected  in  a  greater  or 
lesser  degree  in  other  breeds.  One  sub-breed  is  coloured 
closely  like  G.  honkiva.  The  feathered  legs,  often  furnished 
with  an  additional  toe,  the  wings  incapable  of  flight,  the 
extremely  quiet  disposition,  indicate  a  long  course  of  domes 
tication ;  and  these  fowls  come  from  China,  where  we  know 
that  plants  and  animals  have  been  tended  from  a  remote 
period  with  extiaordinary  care,  and  where  consequently  wo 
might  expect  to  find  profoundly  modified  domestic  races. 

Osteological  Differemces. — I  have  examined  twenty-seven 
skeletons  and  fifty- three  skulls  of  various  breeds,  including 
three  of  G.  hankiva :  nearly  half  of  these  skulls  I  owe  to  the 
kindness  of  Mr.  Tegetmeier,  and  three  of  the  skeletons  to 
Mr.  Eyton. 

The  SkuJl  differs  greatly  in  size  in  different  breeds,  being  nearly 
twice  as  long  in  the  largest  Cochins,  but  not  nearly  twice  as  broad, 
as  in  Bantams.  The  bones  at  the  base,  from  the  occipital  foramen 
to  the  anterior  end  (including  the  guadrates  and  pterygoids),  arc 
absolutely  identical  in  shape  in  all  the  skulls.  So  is  the  lower  jaw. 
In  the  forehead  slight  differences  are  often  perceptible  between  the 
males  and  females,  evidently  caused  by  the  presence  of  the  comb. 
In  every  case  I  take  the  skull  of  G.  hanhiva  as  the  standard  of 
comparison.  In  four  Games,  in  one  Malay  hen,  in  an  African  coek, 
in  a  Frizzled  cock  from  Madras,  in  two  black-boned  Silk  hens,  no 
differences  w^orth  notice  occur.  In  three  Spanish  cocks,  the  form 
of  the  forehead  between  the  orbits  differs  considerably ;  in  one  it  is 
considerably  depressed,  whilst  i?i  the  two  others  it  is  rather  promi- 
nent, with  a  deep  medial  furrow ;  the  skull  of  the  hen  is  smooth. 
In  three  skulls  of  Sebright  Bantams  the  crown  is  more  globular,  and 
slopes  more  abruptly  to  the  occiput,  than  in  G.  hankiva.  In  a 
Bantam  or  JumjDer  from  Burmah  these  same  characters  are  more 
strongly  pronounced,  and  the  supra-occiput  is  more  pointed.  In 
f.  black  Bantam  the  skull  is  not  so  globular,  and  the  occipitid 

19 


274  FOWLS.  Chap.  Vn. 

foramen  is  very  large,  and  has  nearly  the  same  sub-triangular  ont- 
line  presently  to  be  described  in  Cochins ;  and  in  this  skull  the 
two  ascending  branches  of  the  premaxillary  are  overlapped  in  a 
singular  manner  by  the  processes  of  the  nasal  bone,  but,  as  I  have 
seen  only  one  specimen,  some  of  these  differences  may  be  individnal. 
Of  Cochins  and  Brahmas  (the  latter  a  crossed  race  approaching 
closely  to  Cochins)  1  have  examined  seven  skulls;  at  the  point 
where  the  ascending  branches  of  the  premaxillary  rest  on  the  frontal 
bone  the  surface  is  much  depressed,  and  from  this  depression  a  deep 
medial  furrow  extends  backwards  to  a  variable  distance ;  the  edges 
of  this  fissure  are  rather  prominent,  as  is  the  top  of  the  skull  behind 
and  over  the  orbits.  These  characters  are  less  developed  in  the 
hens.  The  pterygoids,  and  the  processes  of  the  lower  jaw,  are 
broader,  relatively  to  the  size  of  the  head,  than  in  O.  hankiva ;  and 
this  is  likewise  the  case  with  Dorkings  when  of  large  size.  The 
fork  of  the  hyoid  bone  in  Cochins  is  twice  as  wide  as  in  G.  hanhiva^ 
whereas  the  length  of  the  other  hyoid  bones  is  only  as  three  to 


B  A 

Fig,  33.— Occipital  Foramen,  of  natural  size.    A.  Wildi  Gallas  lanKva.    B.  Cochin  Cock. 

two.  But  the  most  remarkable  character  is  the  shape  of  the 
occipital  foramen  :  in  G.  hankiva  (A)  the  breadth  in  a  horizontal 
line  exceeds  the  height  in  a  vertical  line,  and  the  outline  is  nearly 
circular ;  whereas  in  Cochins  (B)  the  outline  is  sub-triangular,  and 
the  vertical  line  exceeds  the  horizontal  line  in  length.  This  same 
form  likewise  occurs  in  the  black  Bantam  above  referred  to,  and  an 
approach  to  it  may  be  seen  in  some  Dorkings,  and  in  a  slight  degree 
in  certain  other  breeds. 

Of  Dorkings  I  have  examined  three  skulls,  one  belonging  to  the 
white-sub- breed;  the  one  character  deserving  notice  is  the  breadth 
of  the  frontal  bones,  which  are  moderately  furrowed  in  the  middle  ; 
thus  in  a  skull  which  was  less  than  once  and  a  half  the  length  of 
that  of  G.  hankiva,  the  breadth  between  the  orbits  was  exactly 
double.  Of  Hamhurghs  I  have  examined  four  skulls  (male  and 
female)  of  the  pencilled  sub-breed,  and  one  (male)  of  the  spangled  sub- 
breed;  the  nasal  bones  stand  remarkably  wide  apart,  but  in  a 
variable  degree ;  consequently  narrow  membrane-covered  spaces 
are  left  between  the  tips  of  the  two  ascending  branches  of  the  pre- 
maxillary bones,  which  are  rather  short,  and  between  these  branches 
and  the  nasal  bones.     The  surface  of  the  frontal  bone,  on  which  the 


Chap.  VII. 


OSTEOLOGICAL   DIFFEKENCES. 


275 


branches  of  the  premaxillary  rest,  is  very  little  depressed.  These 
peculiarities  no  doubt  stand  in  close  relation  with  the  broad,  flattened 
rose-comb  characteristic  of  the  Hamburgh  breed. 

I  have  examined  fourteen  skulls  of  Folish  and  other  crested  hreeds. 
Their  differences  are  extraordinary.  First  for  nine  skulls  of  dif- 
ferent sub-breeds  of  English  Polish  fowls.  The  hemispherical  pro- 
tuberance of  the  frontal  bones  *^^  may  be  seen  in  the  accompanying 


Fig.  34,— Skulls  of  natural  size,  viewed  from  above,  a  little  obliquely.    A.  Wild  Gallus 
bankica.    B.  Wtiite- created  Polish  Cock. 

drawings,  in  which  (B)  the  skull  of  a  white-crested  Polish  fowl  is 
shown  obliquely  from  above,  with  the  skull  (A)  of  U.  hankiva  in  the 
same  position.  In  fig.  35  longitudinal  sections  are  given  of  the 
£*kull  of  a  Polish  fowl,  and,  for  comparison,  of  a  Cochin  of  the  same 
size.  The  protuberance  in  all  Polish  fowls  occupies  the  same  position 
but  differs  much  in  size.  In  one  of  my  nine  specimens  it  was  ex- 
tremely slight.  The  degree  to  which  the  protuberance  is  ossified 
varies  greatly,  larger  or  smaller  portions  of  bone  being  replaced  by 
membrane.    In  one  specimen  there  was  only  a  single  open  pore  ; 


^^  See  Mr.  Tegetmeier's  account, 
with  woodcuts,  of  the  skull  of  Polish 
fowls,  in  '  Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,'  Nov. 
25th,  1856.  For  other  references,  s^i? 
Isid.  Geoffroy  Saint- Hilaire,  'Hist. 
Gen.  des  Anomalies,'  torn.  i.  p.  287, 


M.  C.  Dareste  suspects  ('Recherchee 
sur  les  Conditions  de  la  Vie,'  &c., 
Lille,  1863,  p.  36)  that  the  protuber- 
ance is  not  formed  by  the  frontal 
bones,  but  by  the  ossification  of  the 
dura  mater. 


276  FOWLS.  Chap.  A' 11. 

generally,  there  are  many  variously  shaped  open  spaces,  the  bone 
forming  an  irregular  reticulation.  A  medial,  longitudinal,  arched 
ribbon  of  bone  is  generally  retained,  but  in  one  specimen  there  was 
no  bone  whatever  over  the  whole  protuberance,  and  the  skull,  when 
cleaned  and  viewed  from  above,  presented  the  appearance  of  an  open 
basin.  The  change  in  the  whole  internal  form  of  the  skull  is  sur- 
prisingly great.  The  brain  is  modified  in  a  corresponding  manner, 
as  is  shown  in  the  two  longitudinal  sections,  which  deserve  attentive 
consideration.  The  upper  and  anterior  cavity  of  the  three  into 
which  the  skull  may  be  divided,  is  the  one  which  is  so  greatly 
modified ;  it  is  evidently  much  larger  than  in  the  Cochin  skull  of 
the  same  size,  and  extends  much  further  beyond  the  interorbital 
septum,  but  laterally  is  less  deep.  This  cavity,  as  I  hear  from  Mr. 
Tegetmeier,  is  entirely  filled  with  brain.  In  the  skull  of  the  Cochin 
and  of  all  ordinary  fowls  a  strong  internal  ridge  of  bone  separates 
the  anterior  from  the  central  cavity ;  but  this  ridge  is  quite  absent 
in  the  Pohsh  skull  here  figured.  The  shape  of  the  central  cavity  is 
circular  in  the  Polish,  and  lengthened  in  the  Cochin  skull.  The 
shape  of  the  posterior  cavity,  together  with  the  position,  size,  and 
number  of  the  pores  for  the  nerves,  differ  much  in  these  two  skulls. 
A  pit  deeply  penetrating  the  occipital  bone  of  the  Cochin  is  entirely 
absent  in  this  Polish  skull,  whilst  in  another  specimen  it  was  well 
developed.  In  this  second  specimen  the  whole  internal  surface  of 
the  posterior  cavity  likewise  differs  to  a  certain  extent  in  shape. 
I  made  sections  of  two  other  skulls, — namely,  of  a  Polish  fowl  with 
the  protuberance  singularly  little  developed,  and  of  a  Sultan  in 
which  it  was  a  little  more  developed ;  and  when  these  two  skulls 
were  placed  between  the  two  above  figured  (fig.  35),  a  perfect  gra- 
dation in  the  configuration  of  each  part  of  the  internal  surface  could 
be  traced.  In  the  Polish  skull,  with  a  small  protuberance,  the  ridge 
between  the  anterior  and  middle  cavities  was  present,  but  low ;  and 
in  the  Sultan  this  ridge  was  replaced  by  a  narrow  furrow  standing 
on  a  broad  raised  eminence. 

It  may  naturally  be  asked  whether  these  remarkable  modifications 
in  the  form  of  the  brain  affect  the  intellect  of  Polish  fowls ;  some 
writers  have  stated  that  they  are  extremely  stupid,  but  Bechstein 
and  Mr.  Tegetmeier  have  shown  that  this  is  by  no  means  generally 
the  case.  Nevertheless  Bechstein^^  states  that  he  had  a  Polish  hen 
which  "  was  crazy,  and  anxiously  wandered  about  all  day  long." 
A  hen  in  my  possession,  was  solitary  in  her  habits,  and  was  often  so 
absorbed  in  reverie  that  she  could  be  touched  ;  she  was  also  deficient 
in  the  most  singular  manner  in  the  faculty  of  finding  her  way,  so 
that,  if  she  strayed  a  hundred  yards  from  her  feeding-place,  she 
was  completely  lost,  and  would  then  obstinately  try  to  proceed  in  a 
wrong  direction.  I  have  received  other  and  similar  accounts  of 
Polish  fowls  appearing  stupid  or  half-idiotic.'''^ 

®®  '  Naturgeschichte  Deutschlands,'  have  received  communications  to  a 
Band  iii.  (1793),  s.  400.  similar  effect  from  Messrs.  Breut  and 

•"  The  'Field,'  May  11th,  1861.     I       Tegetmeier. 


Chap.  VII. 


OSTEOLOGICAL   DIFFEEENCES. 


277 


-To  return  to  the  sknll  of  Polish  fowl  s.  The  posterior  part,  yiewed 
externally,  differs  little  from  that  of  G.  hankiva.  In  most  fowls 
the  posterior-lateral  process  of  the  frontal  bone  and  the  process  of 
the  squamosal  bone  run  together  and  are  ossified  near  their  ex- 
tremities :  this  union  of  the  two  bones,  however,  is  not  constant  in 
any  breed ;  and  in  eleven  out  of  fourteen  skulls  of  crested  breeds, 
these  processes  were  quite  distinct.  These  processes,  when  not 
united,  instead  of  being  inclined  anteriorly,  as  in  all  common  breeds, 
descend  at  right  angles  to  the  lower  jaw  ;  and  in  this  case  the  longer 


Kg'.  35. — Longitudinal  sections  of  Skull,  of  natural  size,  viewed  laterally.  A.  Polish  Ccck- 
B.  Cochin  Cocli,  selected  for  comparison  with  the  above  from  being  of  nearly  the  same 
size. 

axis  of  the  bony  cavity  of  the  ear  is  likewise  more  perpendicular, 
than  in  other  breeds.  When  the  squamosal  process  is  free  instead 
of  expanding  at  the  tip,  it  is  reduced  to  an  extremely  fine  and 
pointed  style,  of  variable  length.  The  pterygoid  and  quadrate  bones 
present  no  differences.  The  palatine  bones  are  a  little  more  curved 
upwards  at  their  posterior  ends.  The  frontal  bones,  anteriorly  to 
the  protuberance,  are,  as  in  Dorkings,  very  broad,  but  in  a  variable 
degree.  The  nasal  bones  either  stand  far  apart,  as  in  Hamburghs, 
or  almost  touch  each  other,  and  in  one  instance  were  ossified 
together.    Each  nasal   bone  properly  sends  out  in  front  two  long 


278  FOWLS.  Chap.  VIT. 

processes  of  equal  lengths,  forming  a  fork ;  bnt  in  all  the  Polish 
skulls,  except  one,  the  inner  process  was  considerably,  but  in  a 
variable  degree,  shortened  and  somewhat  upturned.  In  all  the 
skulls,  except  one,  the  two  ascending  branches  of  the  premaxillary, 
instead  of  running  up  between  the  processes  of  the  nasal  bones  and 
resting  on  the  ethmoid  bone,  are  much  shortened  and  terminate  in  a 
blunt,  somewhat  upturned  point.  In  those  skulls  in  which  the 
nasal  bones  approach  quite  close  to  eacb  other  or  are  ossified 
together,  it  would  be  impossible  for  the  ascending  branches  of  the 
premaxillary  to  reach  the  ethmoid  and  frontal  bones  ;  hence  we  see 
that  even  the  relative  connection  of  the  bones  has  been  changed. 
Apparently  in  consequence  of  the  branches  of  the  premaxillary  and 
of  the  inner  processes  of  the  nasal  bones  being  somewhat  upturned, 
the  external  orifices  of  the  nostrils  are  upraised  and  assume  a 
crescentic  outline. 

I  must  still  say  a  few  words  on  some  of  the  foreign  Crested 
breeds.  The  skull  of  a  crested,  rumpless,  white  Turkish  fowl  was 
very  slightly  protuberant,  and  but  little  perforated ;  the  ascending 
branches  of  the  premaxillary  was  well  developed.  In  another 
Turkish  breed,  called  Ghoondooks,  the  skull  was  considerably  protu- 
berant and  perforated ;  the  ascending  branches  of  the  premaxillary 
were  so  much  aborted  that  they  projected  only  y^th  of  an  inch  ;  and 
the  inner  processes  of  the  nasal  bone  were  so  completely  aborted,  that 
the  surface  where  they  should  have  projected  was  quite  smooth. 
Here  then  we  see  these  two  bones  modified  to  an  extreme  degree. 
Of  Sultans  (another  Turkish  breed)  I  examined  two  skulls ;  in  that 
of  the  female  the  protuberance  was  much  larger  than  in  the  male. 
In  both  skulls  the  ascending  branches  of  the  premaxillary  were  very 
short,  and  in  both  the  nasal  portion  of  the  iimer  processes  of  the 
nasal  bones  were  ossified  together.  These  Sultan  skulls  diflered 
from  those  of  English  Polish  fowls  in  the  frontal  bones,  anteriorly 
to  the  protuberance,  not  being  broad. 

The  last  skull  which  I  need  describe  is  a  unique  one,  lent  to  me 
by  Mr.  Tegetmeier:  it  resembles  a  Polish  skull  in  most  of  its 
characters,  but  has  not  the  great  frontal  protuberance;  it  has, 
however,  two  rounded  knobs  of  a  different  nature,  which  stand 
more  in  front,  above  the  lachrymal  bones.  These  curious  knobs, 
into  which  the  brain  does  not  enter,  are  separated  from  each  other 
by  a  deep  medial  furrow ;  and  this  is  perforated  by  a  few  minute 
pores.  The  nasal  bones  stand  rather  wide  apart,  with  their  inner 
processes,  and  the  ascending  branches  of  the  premaxillary,  upturned 
and  shortened.  The  two  knobs  no  doubt  supported  the  two  great 
horn -like  projections  of  the  comb. 

From  the  foregoing  facts  we  see  in  how  astonishing  a  manner 
some  of  the  bones  of  the  skull  vary  in  Crested  fowls.  The  pro- 
tuberance may  certainly  be  called  in  one  sense  a  monstrosity,  as 
being  wholly  unlike  anything  observed  in  nature:  but  as  in 
ordinary  cases  it  is  not  injurious  to  the  bird,  and  as  it  is  strictly 
inherited,  it  can  hardly  in  another  sense  be  called  a  monstrosity. 


Chap.  VII. 


OSTEOLOGICAL   DIFFERENCES. 


279 


A  series  may  be  formed  commencing  with  the  black  boned  Silk 
fowl,  which  has  a  very  small  crest  with  the  skull  beneath  penetrated 
only'  by  a  few  minute  orifices,  but  with  no  other  change  in  its 
structure ;  and  from  this  first  stage  we  may  proceed  to  fowls  with 
a  moderately  large  crest,  which  rests,  according  to  Bechstein,  on  a 
fleshy  mass,  but  without  any  protuberance  in  the  skull.  I  may  add 
that  I  have  seen  a  similar  fleshy  or  fibrous  mass  beneath  the  tuft 
of  feathers  on  the  head  of  the  Tufted  duck  ;  and  in  this  case  there 
was  no  actual  protuberance  in  the  skull,  but  it  had  become  a  little 
more  globular.  Lastly,  when  we  come  to  fowls  with  a  largely 
developed  crest,  the  skull  becomes  largely  protuberant  and  is  per- 
forated by  a  multitude  of  irregular  open  spaces.  The  close  relation 
between  the  crest  and  the  size  of  the  bony  protuberance  is  shown  m 
another  way;  for  Mr.  Tegetmeier  informs  me  that  if  chickens  lately 
hatched  be  selected  with  a  large  bony  protuberance,  when  adult 


Fig.  36. — SlvuU  of  Horned  Fowl,  of  natural  size,  viewed  from  above,  a  little  obliquely.    (Id 
tiie  possession  of  Ttgetmeier.) 

they  will  have  a  large  crest.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  former 
times  the  breeder  of  Polish  fowls  attended  solely  to  the  crest,  and 
not  to  the  skull ;  nevertheless,  by  increasing  the  crest,  in  which  he  has 
been  wonderfully  successful,  he  has  unintentionally  made  the  skull 
protuberant  to  an  astonishing  degree ;  and  through  correlation  of 
growth,  he  has  at  the  same  time  affected  the  form  and  relative  con- 
nexion of  the  premaxillary  and  nasal  bones,  the  shape  of  the  orifice 
of  the  nose,  the  breadth  of  the  frontal  bones,  the  shape  of  the  post- 
lateral  processes  of  the  frontal  and  squamosal  bones,  the  direction 
of  the  axis  of  the  bony  cavity  of  the  ear,  and  lastly  the  internal 
configuration  of  the  whole  skull  together  with  the  shape  of  the 
brain. 

Vertehrce. — In  G.  hanhiva  there  are  fourteen  cervical,  seven  dorsal 
with  ribs,  apparently  fifteen  lumbar  and  sacral,  and  six  caudal 


280  FOWLS.  ^  Chap.  VII. 

vertebrae; ''  but  tlie  lumbar  and  sacral  are  so  much  auchylosed  that 
1  am  not  sure  of  their  number,  and  this  makes  the  comparison  of 
the  total  number  of  vertebrae  in  the  several  breeds  difficult.  I  have 
spoken  of  six  caudal  vertebrae,  because  the  basal  one  is  almost 
completely  anchylosed  with  the  pelvis;  but  if  we  consider  the 
number  as  seven,  the  caudal  vertebrse  agree  in  all.  the  skeletons. 
The  cervical  vertebrce  are,  as  just  stated,  in  appearance  fourteen ; 
but  out  of  twenty-three  skeletons  in  a  fit  state  for  examination,  in 
five  of  them,  namely,  in  two  Games,  in  two  pencilled  Hamburghs, 
and.  in  a  Polish,  the  fourteenth  vertebra  bore  ribs,  which,  though 
small,  were  perfectly  developed  with  a  double  articulation.  The 
presence  of  these  little  ribs  cannot  be  considered  as  a  fact  of  much 
importance,  for  all  the  cervical  vertebne  bear  representatives  of  ribs ; 
but  their  development  in  the  fourteenth  vertebra  reduces  the  size 
of  the  passages  in  the  transverse  processes,  and  makes  this  vertebra 
exactly  like  the  first  dorsal  vertebra.  The  addition  of  these  little  ribs 
does  not  affect  the  fourteenth  cervical  alone,  for  properly  the  ribs 
of  the  first  true  dorsal  vertebra  are  destitute  of  processes ;  but 
in  some  of  the  skeletons  in  which  the  fourteenth  cervical  bore 
little  ribs  the  first  pair  of  true  ribs  had  well-developed  processes. 
When  we  know  that  the  sparrow  has  only  nine,  and  the  swan  twenty- 
three  cervical  vertebrae,''"  we  need  feel  no  surprise  at  the  number 
of  the  cervical  vertebrae  in  the  fowl  being,  as  it  aj)pears,  variable. 

There  are  seven  dorsal  vertebrae  bearing  ribs ;  the  first  dorsal  is 
never  anchylosed  with  the  succeeding  four,  which  are  generally 
anchylosed  together.  In  one  Sultan  fowl,  however,  the  two  first 
dorsal  vertebrae  were  free.  In  two  skeletons,  the  fifth  dorsal  was 
free ;  generally  the  sixth  is  free  (as  in  G.  hankiva),  but  sometimes 
only  at  its  posterior  end,  where  in  contact  with  the  seventh.  The 
seventh  dorsal  vertebra,  in  every  case  exceptin.s:  in  one  Spanish  cock, 
was  anchylosed  with  the  lumbar  vertebras.  So  that  the  degree  to 
which  these  middle  dorsal  vertebrae  are  anchylosed  is  variable. 

Seven  is  the  normal  number  of  true  ribs,  but  in  two  skeletons  of 
the  Sultan  fowl  (in  which  the  fourteenth  cervical  vertebra  was  not 
furnished  with  little  ribs)  there  ^'ere  eight  pairs ;  the  eighth  pair 
seemed  to  be  developed  on  a  vertebra  corresponding  with  the  first 
lumbar  in  G.  hankiva;  the  sternal  portion  of  both  the  seventh  and 
eighth  ribs  did  not  reach  the  sternum.  In  four  skeletons  in  which 
ribs  were  developed  on  the  fourteenth  cervical  vertebra,  there  were, 
when  these  cervical  ribs  are  included,  eight  pairs ;  but  in  one 
Game  cock,  in  which  the  fourteenth  cervical  was  furnished  with 
ribs,  there  were  only  six  pairs  of  true  dorsal  ribs ;  the  sixth  pair  in 
this  case  did  not  have  processes,  and  thus  resembled  the  seventh 

^'   It    appears    that    I    have    not  caudal  vertebrje  in  this   genus.     But 

correctly  designated  the  several  groups  I  have  used  the  same  terms  in  all  the 

of   vertebra?,   for  a  great  authority.  following  descriptions. 

Mr.  W.  K.  Parker  ('Transact.  Zoolog.  "^  Macgillivray,  *  British  Birds,' vol. 

See.,'   vol.    V.    p.    198),    specifies    16  i.  p.  25 
cervical,  4  dorsal,  15  lumbar,  and  6 


CiiAr.  VIL 


OSTEOLOGICAL    DIFFEEENCES. 


281 


pair  in  other  skeletons ;  in  this  Game  coclv,  as  far  as  could  be 
judged  from  the  appearance  of  the  lumbar  yertebrse,  a  whole  dorsal 
vertebra  with  its  ribs  was  missing.  We  thus  see  that  the  ribs 
(whether  or  not  the  little  pair  attached  to  the  fourteenth  cervical 
vertebra  be  counted)  vary  from  six  to  eight  pair.  The  sixth  pair  is 
frequently  not  furnished  with  processes.  The  sternal  portion  of 
the  seventh  pair  is  extremely  broad  in  Cochins,  and  is  completely 
ossified.  As  previously  stated,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  count  the 
lumbo-sacral  vertebrae;  but  they  certainly  do  not  correspond  in 
shape  or  number  in  the  several  skeletons.  The  caudal  vertebrae 
are  closely  similar  in  all  the  skeletons,  the  only  difference  being 
whether  or  not  the  basal  one  is  anchylosed  to  the  jJ^l'^'is;  they 
hardly  vary  even  in  length,  not  being  shorter  in  Cochins,  with  their 
short  tail-feathers,  than  in  other  breeds ;  in  a  Spanish  cock, 
however,  the  caudal  vertebrae  were  a  little  elongated.  In  three 
rumpless  fowls  the  caudal  vertebrae  were  few  in  number,  and 
anchylosed  together  into  a  misformed  mass. 

In  the  individual  vertebrae  the  differences  in  structure  are  very 
slight.  In  the  atlas  the  cavity  for  the  occipital  condyle  is  either 
ossified  into  a  ring,  or  is,  as  in  Bankiva, 
open  on  its  upper  margin.  The  upper  arc 
of  the  spinal  canal  is  a  little  more  arched 
in  Cochins,  in  conformity  with  the  shape 
of  the  occipital  foramen,  than  in  G.  bankiva. 
In  several  skeletons  a  dift't-rence,  but  not 
of  much  importance,  may  be  observed, 
which  commences  at  the  fourth  cervical 
vertebra,  and  is  gieatest  at  about  the 
sixth,  seventh,  or  eighth  vertebra;  this 
consists  in  the  haemal  descending  processes 
being  united  to  the  body  of  the  vertebra 
by  a  sort  of  buttress.  This  structure  may 
be  observed  in  Cochins,  Polish,  some  Ham- 
burghs,  and  probably  other  breeds ;  but 
is  absent,  or  barely  -developed,  in  Game,  Dorking,  Spanish,  Bantam, 
and  several  other  breeds  examined  by  me.  On  the  dorsal  surface 
of  the  sixth  cervical  vertebra  in  Cochins  three  prominent  points 
are  more  strongly  developed  than  in  the  corresponding  vertebra 
of  the  Game  fowl  or  G.  hankiva. 

Ptlvis. — This  differs  in  some  few  points  in  the  several  skeletons. 
The  anterior  margin  of  the  ilium  seems  at  first  to  vary  much  in 
outline,  but  this  is  chiefly  due  to  the  degree  to  which  the  margin 
in  the  middle  part  is  ossified  to  the  crest  of  the  vertebrae ;  the  outline, 
however,  does  differ  in  being  more  truncated  in  Bantams,  and  more 
rounded  in  certain  breeds,  as  in  Cochins.  The  outline  of  the 
ischiadic  foramen  differs  considerably,  being  nearly  circular  in 
Bantams,  instead  of  egg-shaped  as  in  the  Bankiva,  and  more 
regularly  oval  in  some  skeletons,  as  in  the  Spanish,  The  obturator 
notch  is  also  much  less  elongated  in  some  skeletons  than  in  others. 


Fig.  37— Sixth  Cervical  Vertebra, 
ofnatural  size,  viewed  laterally. 
A.  Wild  Gallus  bankica.  B. 
Cochin  Cock. 


282 


FOWLS. 


Chap.  VII. 


The  end  of  the  pubic  bone  presents  the  greatest  difference ;  being 
hardly  enlarged  in  the  Bankiva;  considerably  and  gradually 
enlarged  in  Cochins,  and  in  a  lesser  degree  -in  some  other  breeds ; 
and  abruptly  enlarged  in  Bantams.  In  one  Bantam  this  bone 
extended  A^ery  little  beyond  the  extremity  of  the  ischium.  The 
whole  pelvis  in  this  latter  bird  differed  widely  in  its  proportions^ 
being  far  broader  proportionally  to  its  length  than  in  Bankiva. 

Sternum.— This  bone  is  generally  so  much  deformed  that  it  is 
scarcely  possible  to  compare  its  shape  strictly  in  the  several  breeds. 

The  form  of  the  triangular  ex- 
tremity of  the  lateral  processes 
differs  considerably,  being  either 
almost  equilateral  or  much  elon- 
gated. The  front  margin  of  the 
crest  is  more  or  less  perpendicular 
and  varies  greatly,  as  does  the 
curvature  of  the  posterior  end, 
and  the  flatness  of  the  lower 
surface.  The  outline  of  the 
manubrial  process  also  varies, 
being  wedge-shaped  in  the  Ban- 
kiva, and  rounded  in  the  Spanish 
breed.  The  furculum  differs  in 
being  more  or  less  arched,  and 
greatly,  as  may  be  seen  in  the 
accompanying  outlines,  in  the 
shape  of  the  terminal  plate  ;  but 
the  shape  of  this  part  differed  a 
little  in  two  skeletons  of  the  wild 
Bankiva.  The  coracoid  presents 
no  difference  worth  notice.  The 
scapula  varies  in  shape,  being  of 
nearly  uniform  breadth  in  Ban- 
kiva, much  broader  in  the  middle 
in  the  Polish  fowl,  and  abruptly 
narrowed  towards  the  apex  in 
the  two  Sultan  fowls. 
I  carefully  compared  each 
separate  bone  of  the  leg  and  wing,  relatively  to  the  same  bones 
in  the  wild  Bankiva,  in  the  following  breeds,  which  I  thought  were 
the  most  likely  to  differ;  namely,  in  Cochin,  Dorking,  Spanish, 
Polish,  Burmese  Bantam,  Frizzled  Indian,  and  black-boned  Silk 
fowls;  and  it  was  truly  surprising  to  see  how  absolutely  every 
process,  articulation,  and  pore  agreed,  though  the  bones  differed 
f?reatly  in  size.  The  agreement  is  far  more  absolute  than  in  other 
parts  of  the  skeleton.  In  stating  this,  I  do  not  refer  to  the 
relative  thickness  and  length  of  the  several  bones ;  for  the  tarsi 
varied  considerably  in  both  these  respects.  But  the  other  limb- 
bones  varied  little  even  in  relative  length. 


Fig.  38.— Extremity  of  the  Furcula,  of 
natural  size,  viewed  laterally.  A.  Wild 
Callus  bankiva.  B.  Spangled  Polish 
Fowl.  C.  Spanish  Fowl.  D.  Dorliing 
Fowl. 


Chap.  VII.  OSTEOLOGICAL   DIFFERENCES.  283 

Finally,  I  have  not  examined  a  sufficient  number  of  skele- 
tons to  say  whether  any  of  the  foregoing  differences,  except 
in  the  skull,  are  characteristic  of  the  several  breeds.  Appa- 
rently some  differences  are  more  common  in  certain  breeds 
than  in  others, — as  an  additional  rib  to  the  fourteenth  cervical 
vertebra  in  Hamburghs  and  Games,  and  the  breadth  of  tho 
end  of  the  pubic  bone  in  Cochins.  Both  skeletons  of  tho 
Sultan  fowl  had  eight  dorsal  vertebra3,  and  the  end  of  the 
scapula  in  both  was  somewhat  attenuated.  In  the  skull,  the 
deep  medial  furrow  in  the  frontal  bones  and  the  vertically 
elongated  occipital  foramen  seem  to  be  characteristic  of 
Cochins;  as  is  the  great  breadth  of  the  frontal  bones  in 
Dorkings  ;  the  separation  and  open  spaces  between  the  tips  of 
the  ascending  branches  of  the  premaxillaries  and  nasal  bones, 
as  well  as  the  front  part  of  the  skull  being  but  little  depressed, 
characterise  Hamburghs  ;  the  globular  shape  of  the  posterior 
part  of  the  skull  seems  to  be  characteristic  of  laced  Bantams  ; 
and  lastly,  the  protuberance  of  the  skull  with  the  ascending 
branches  of  the  premaxillaries  partially  aborted,  together 
with  the  other  differences  before  specified,  are  eminently 
characteristic  of  Polish  and  other  Crested  fowls. 

But  the  most  striking  result  of  my  examination  of  the 
skeleton  is  the  great  variability  of  all  the  bones  except  those 
of  the  extremities.  To  a  certain  extent  we  can  understand 
why  the  skeleton  fluctuates  so  much  in  structure ;  fowls  have 
been  exposed  to  unnatural  conditions  of  life,  and  their  whole 
organization  has  thus  been  rendered  variable ;  but  the  breeder 
is  quite  indifferent  to,  and  never  intentionally  selects,  any 
modification  in  the  skeleton.  External  characters,  if  not 
attended  to  by  man,— such  as  the  number  of  the  tail  and 
wing  feathers  and  their  relative  lengths,  which  in  wild  birds 
are  generally  constant, — fluctuate  in  our  domestic  fowls  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  several  parts  of  the  skeleton.  An 
cidditional  toe  is  a  "  point "  in  Dorkings,  and  has  become  a 
fixed  character,  but  is  variable  in  Cochins  and  Silk  fowls. 
The  colour  of  the  i^lumage  and  the  form  of  the  comb  are  in 
most  breeds,  or  even  sub-breeds,  eminently  fixed  characters ; 
but  in  Dorkings  these  points  have  not  been  attended  to,  and 
arc   variable.     When   any   modification    in    the   skeleton    is 


284  FOWLS.  CHA1-.  YiL 

related  to  some  external  cliaracter  which  man  values,  it  has 
been,  unintentionally  on  his  part,  acted  on  by  selection,  and 
has  become  more  or  less  fixed.  We  see  this  in  the  wonderful 
protuberance  of  the  skull,  which  supports  the  crest  of  feathers 
in  Polish  fowls,  and  which  by  correlation  has  affected  other 
parts  of  the  skull.  We  see  the  same  result  in  the  two  pro- 
tuberances which  support  the  horns  in  the  horned  fowl,  and 
in  the  flattened  shape  of  the  front  of  the  skull  in  Hamburgh  s 
consequent  on  their  flattened  and  broad  "  rose-combs."  We 
know  not  in  the  least  whether  additional  ribs,  or  the  changed 
outline  of  the  occipital  foramen,  or  the  changed  form  of  the 
scapula,  or  of  the  extremity  of  the  furculum,  are  in  any  way 
correlated  with  other  structures,  or  have  arisen  from  the 
changed  conditions  and  habits  of  life  to  which  our  fowls  have 
been  subjected;  but  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  these 
various  modifications  in  the  skeleton  could  be  rendered,  either 
by  direct  selection,  or  by  the  selection  of  correlated  structures, 
as  constant  and  as  characteristic  of  each  breed,  as  are  the  size 
and  shape  of  the  body,  the  colour  of  the  plumage,  and  the 
form  of  the  comb. 

Effects  of  the  Disuse  of  Parts. 

Judging  from  the  habits  of  our  European  gallinaceous  birds, 
Gallus  bankiua  in  its  native  haunts  would  use  its  legs  and  wings 
more  than  do  our  domestic  fowls,  which  rarely  fly  except  to  their 
roosts.  The  Silk  and  the  Frizzled  fowls,  from  having  imperfect 
wing- feathers,  cannot  fly  at  all ;  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that 
both  these  breeds  are  ancient,  so  that  their  progenitors  during 
many  generations  cannot  have  flown.  The  Cochins,  also,  from  their 
short  wings  and  heavy  bodies,  can  hardly  fly  up  to  a  low  perch. 
Therefore  in  these  breeds,  especially  in  the  two  first,  a  considerable 
diminution  in  the  wing-bones  might  have  been  expected,  but  this  is 
not  the  case.  In  every  specimen,  after  disarticulating  and  cleaning 
the  bones,  I  carefully  compared  the  relative  length  of  the  two  main 
bones  of  the  wing  to  each  other,  and  of  the  two  main  bones  of  the 
leg  to  each  other,  with  those  of  G.  bankiva ;  and  it  was  surprising 
to  see  (except  in  the  case  of  the  tarsi)  how  exactly  the  same  relative 
length  had  been  retained.  This  fact  is  curious,  from  showing  how 
truly  the  proportions  of  an  organ  may  be  inherited,  although  not 
fully  exercised  during  many  generations.  I  then  compared  in 
several  breeds  the  length  of  the  femur  and  tibia  wdth  the  humerus 
and  ulna,  and  likewise  these  same  bones  with  those  of  G.  hankiva  ; 
the  result  was  that  the  wing-bones  in  all  the  breeds  (except  the 


Chai>.  VII. 


THE   EFFECTS   OF   DISUSE. 


285 


Burmese  Jumper,  which  has  unnaturally  short  legs,  are  slightly 
shortened  relatively  to  the  leg-bones ;  but  the  decrease  is  so  slight 
that  it  may  be  due  to  the  standard  specimen  of  G.  hankiva  having 
accidentally  had  wings  of  slightly  greater  length  than  usual ;  so 
that  the  measurements  are  not  worth  giving.  But  it  deserves 
notice  that  the  Silk  and  Frizzled  fowls,  which  are  quite  incapable 
of  flight,  had  their  wings  less  reduced  relatively  to  their  legs  than 
in  almost  any  other  breed !  We  have  seen  with  domesticated 
pigeons  that  the  bones  of  the  wings  are  somewhat  reduced  in  length, 
whilst  the  primary  feathers  are  rather  increased  in  length,  and  it  is 
just  possible,  though  not  probable,  that  in  the  Silk  and  Frizzled 
fowls  any  tendency  to  decrease  in  the  length  of  the  wing-bones  from 
disuse  may  have  been  checked  through  the  law  of  compensation,  by 
the  decreased  growth  of  the  wing-feathers,  and  consequent  increased 
supply  of  nutriment.  The  wing-bones,  however,  m  both  these  breeds, 
are  found  to'  be  slightly  reduced  in  length  when  judged  by  the 
standard  of  the  length  of  the  sternum  or  head,  relatively  to  these 
same  parts  in  G.  hankiva. 

The  actual  w^eight  of  the  main  bones  of  the  leg  and  wing  in  twelve 
breeds  is  given  in  the  two  first  columns  in  the  following  table.  The 
calculated  weight  of  the  wing-bones  relatively  to  the  leg-bones,  in 
comparison  with  the  leg  and  wing-bones  of  G.  hankiva,  are  given 
in  the  third  column, — the  weight  of  the  wing-bones  in  G.  hankiva 
being  called  a  hundred.'^ 

Table  I. 


Names  of  Breeds. 

Actual 
Weight 

of 
Femur 

and 
Tibia. 

Actual 
Weight  of 
Humerus 
and  Ulna, 

Weight  of  Wlng- 
bones  relatively  lo 
the  Leg-bunes  in 
comparison  with 
thes^e  same  bones 
in  G.  bankiva 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

w 

Gallus  bankiva  ..      ..  wild  male 

Cochin         male 

Dorking       male 

Spanish  (Minorca)     ..  male 
Gold-Spangled  Polish   male 
Game,  black- breasted    male 

Malay female 

Sultan male 

Indian  Frizzb  d  . .      . .  male 
Burmese  Jumper        ..  female 
Hamburgh  (pt-ncilled)  male 
Hamburgh  (pencilled)  female 
Sdk  (black-boned)      ..  fem&le 

Grains. 

86 
311 
557 
386 
306 
293 
231 
189 
206 

53 
157 
114 

88 

Grains. 

54 

162 

248 

183 

145 

143 

116 

94 

88 

36 

104 

77 

57 

100 

83 

70 

75 

75 

77 

80 

79 

67 

108 

106 

108 

103 

"'  It  may  be  well  to  explain  how 
th^  calculation  has  been  made  for  the 
third    column.       In    G.    bankiva  the 


leg -Kones  are  to  the  wing-bones  aa 
86  :  54,  or  as  (neglecting  decimals) 
100  :  62; — in  Cochins  as  311  :  l'i2,oi 


286  FOWLS.  Chap.  VII. 

In  the  eight  first  birds,  belonging  to  distinct  breeds,  in  this  table, 
we  see  a  decided  reduction  in  the  weight  of  the  bones  of  the  wing. 

In  the  Indian  Frizzled  fowl,  which  cannot  fly,  the  reduction  is 
carried  to  the  greatest  extent,  namely,  to  thirty-three  per  cent,  of 
their  proper  proportional  weight.  In  the  next  four  birds,  including 
the  Silk  hen,  which  is  incapable  of  flight,  we  see  that  the  wings, 
relatively  to  the  legs,  are  slightly  increased  in  weight ;  but  it  should 
be  observed  that,  if  in  these  birds  the  legs  had  become  from  any 
cause  reduced  in  weight,  this  would  give  the  false  appearance  of 
the  wings  having  increased  in  relative  weight.  Now  a  reduction  of 
this  nature  has  certainly  occurred  with  the  Burmese  Jumper,  in 
which  the  legs  are  abnormally  short,  and  in  the  two  Hamburghs 
and  Silk  fowl,  the  legs,  though  not  short,  are  formed  of  remarkably 
thin  and  light  bones.  I  make  these  statements,  not  judging  by 
mere  eyesight,  but  after  having  calculated  the  weights  of  the  leg- 
bones  relatively  to  those  of  G.  bankiva,  according  to  the  only  two 
standards  of  comparison  which  I  could  use,  namely,  the  relative 
lengths  of  the  head  and  sternum ;  for  I  do  not  know  the  weight  of 
the  body  in  G.  bankiva,  which  would  have  been  a  better  standard. 
According  to  these  standards,  the  leg-bones  in  these  four  fowls  are 
in  a  marked  manner  far  lighter  than  in  any  other  breed.  It  may 
therefore  be  concluded  that  in  all  cases  in  which  the  legs  have  not 
been  through  some  unknown  cause  much  reduced  in  weight,  the 
wing-bones  have  become  reduced  in  weight  relatively  to  the  leg- 
bones,  in  comparison  with  those  of  G.  bankiva.  And  this  reduction 
of  weight  may,  I  apprehend,  safely  be  attributed  to  disuse. 

To  make  the  foregoing  table  quite  satisfactory,  it  ought  to  have 
been  shown  that  in  the  eight  first  birds  the  leg-bones  have  not  actually 
increased  in  weight  out  of  due  proportion  with  the  rest  of  the  body ; 
this  I  cannot  show,  from  not  knowing,  as  already  remarked,  the 
weight  of  the  wild  Bankiva.'^*  I  am  indeed  inclined  to  suspect  that 
the  leg-bones  in  the  Dorking,  No.  2  in  the  table,  are  proportionally 
too  heavy ;  but  this  bird  was  a  very  large  one,  weighing  7  lb.  2  oz., 
though  very  thin.  Its  leg-bones  were  more  than  ten  times  as  heavy 
as  those  of  the  Burmese  Jumper !  I  tried  to  ascertain  the  length 
both  of  the  leg-bones  and  wing-bones  relatively  to  other  parts  of 
the  body  and  skeleton  :  but  the  whole  organisation  in  these  birds, 
which  have  been  so  loDg  domesticated,  has  become  so  variable,  that 


as  100  :  52  ; — in  Dorkings  as  557 :  248,  so  on  for  the  remainder  of  the  thinf 

or  as   100  :  44 ;    and    so  on  for  the  column  in  the  table, 

other  breeds.     We  thus  get  the  series  ^*  Mr.  Blyth  (in  '  Annals  and  Mag, 

of  62,  52,  44  for  the  relative  weights  of  Nat.  Hist.,'  2nd  series,  vol.  i,,  ]848, 

of   the    wing-bones    in     G.    bankica,  p.  456)  gives  3|-  lb.  as  the  weight  of 

Cochins,    Dorkings,    &c.       And    now  a  full-grown  male    G,  bankiva;    but 

taking    10  >,   instead    of   62,  for    the  from  what   I   have  seen  of  the  skins 

weight  of  the  wing-bones  in  (r.  6a?i^ira,  and    skeletons    of    various    breeds,    I 

we  get,  by  another  rule  of  three,  80  cannot  believe  that  my  two  specimens 

as  thfc  weign:  of  the  wing-bones  in  of  G.  bankiva  could  have  weighed  so 

Cochins ;    70  in   the    Dorkings ;    and  much. 


Chap.  VII. 


THE  EFFECTS   OF  DISUSE. 


287 


no  certain  conclusions  could  be  reached.  For  instance,  the  legs  of 
the  above  Dorking  cock  were  nearly  three-quarters  of  an  inch  too 
short  relatively  to  the  length  of  the  sternum,  and  more  than  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  too  long  relatively  to  the  length  of  the  skull, 
in  comparison  with  these  same  parts  in  O.  hankiva. 

In  the  following  Table  IL  in  the  two  first  columns  we  see  in 
inches  and  decimals  the  length  of  the  sternum,  and  the  extreme 
depth  of  its  crest  to  which  the  pectoral  muscles  are  attached.  In 
the  third  column  we  have  the  calculated  depth  of  the  crest,  relatively 
to  the  length  of  the  sternum,  in  comparison  with  these  same  parts 
in  G.  hankivaj" 

Table  II. 


Names  of  breeds. 


I 

2 
3 
4 

0 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 


Gallus  hankiva       . .      . .   male 

Cochin      male 

Dorking male 

Spanish male 

Polish      male 

Game ..  male 

Malay       female 

Sultan      male 

Frizzled  hen male 

Burmese  Jumper    . .      . .   female 

Hamburgh       male 

Hamburgh       female 

Silk  fowl  female 


Length 

of 
Srerimm. 


Depth  of 

Crest 

of 

Sternum. 


Inches. 
4 
5 
8 
6 
5 
5 
5 
4 
4 
3 
5 
4 
4 


•20 

•83 

•95 

•10 

•07 

•55 

10 

•47 

•25 

•06 

08 

•55 

•49 

i 

Inches. 
■40 
•55 
•97 
•83 
•50 
•55 
•50 
•36 
•20 
•  •85 
•40 
•26 
•01 


Depth  of  Crest 

relatively  to  the 

length  of  the 

Sternum,  in 

comparison  with 

G.  batikiua. 


100 
78 
84 
90 
87 
81 
87 
90 
84 
81 
81 
81 
66 


By  looking  to  the  third  column  we  see  that  in  every  case  the 
depth  of  the  crest  relatively  to  the  length  of  the  sternum,  in  com- 
parison with  G.  hankiva,  is  diminished,  generally  between  10  and 
20  per  cent.  But  the  degree  of  reduction  varies  much,  partly  in 
consequence  of  the  frequently  deformed  state  of  the  sternum.  In 
the  Silk  fowl,  which  cannot  fly,  the  crest  is  34  per  cent,  less  deep 
than  what  it  ought  to  have  been.  This  reduction  of  the  crest  in  all 
the  breeds  probably  accounts  for  the  great  variability,  before 
referred  to,  in  the  curvature  of  the  furculum,  and  in  the  shape  of  its 
sternal  extremity.  Medical  men  believe  that  the  abnormal  form  of 
the  spine  so  commonly  observed  in  women  of  the  higher  ranks 
results  from  the  attached  muscles  not  being  fully  exercised.  So 
it  is  with  our  domestic  fowls,  for  they  use  their  pectoral  muscles 


^*  The  third  column  is  calculated  on  the  same  principle  as  explained  in  the 
previous  foot-note,  p.  285. 


288  FOWLS.  Chap.  VII. 

but  little,  and,  out  of  twenty-five  sternums  examined  by  me,  three 
alone  were  perfectly  symmetrical,  ten  were  moderately  crooked,  and 
twelve  were  deformed  to  an  extreme  degree.  Mr.  Romanes,  however, 
believes  that  the  malformation  is  due  to  fowls  whilst  young  resting 
their  sternums  on  the  sticks  on  which  they  roost. 

Finally,  we  may  conclude  with,  respect  to  the  various  breeds 
of  the  fowl,  that  the  main  bones  of  the  wing  have  probably 
been  shortened  in  a  very  slight  degree ;  that  they  have  certainly 
become  lighter  relatively  to  the  leg-bones  in  all  the  breeds  in 
which  these  latter  bones  are  not  unnaturally  short  or  deli- 
cate ;  and  that  the  crest  of  the  sternum,  to  which  the  pectoral 
muscles  are  attached,  has  invariably  become  less  prominent, 
the  whole  sternum  being  also  extremely  liable  to  deformity. 
These  results  we  may  attribute  to  the  lessened  use  of  the 
wings. 

Correlation  of  Growth. — I  will  here  sum  up  the  few  facts 
which  I  have  collected  on  this  obscure,  but  important,  subject. 
In  Cochin  and  Game  fowls  there  is  perhaps  some  relation 
between  the  colour  of  the  plumage  and  the  darl^ness  of  the 
62:2:- shell.  In  Sultans  the  additional  sickle-feathers  in  the 
tail  are  apparently  related  to  the  general  redundancy  of  the 
plumage,  as  shown  by  the  feathered  legs,  large  crest,  and 
beard.  In  two  tailless  fowls  which  I  examined  the  oil-gland 
was  aborted.  A  large  crest  of  feathers,  as  Mr.  Tegetineier 
has  remarked,  seems  always  accompanied  by  a  great  dimi- 
nution or  almost  entire  absence  of  the  comb.  A  large  beard 
is  similarly  accompanied  by  diminished  or  absent  wattles. 
These  latter  cases  apparently  come  under  the  law  of  com- 
pensation or  balan  cement  of  growth.  A  large  beard  beneath 
the  lower  jaw  and  a  large  top-knot  on  the  skull  often  go 
together.  The  comb  when  of  any  peculiar  shape,  as  with 
Horned,  Spanish,  and  Hamburgh  fowls,  affects  in  a  corre 
spending  manner  the  underlying  skull ;  and  we  have  seen 
how  wonderfully  this  is  the  case  with  Crested  fowls  when 
the  crest  is  largely  developed.  With  the  protuberance  of  the 
frontal  bones  the  shape  of  the  internal  sur'ace  of  the  skull 
and  of  the  brain  is  greatly  modified.  The  presence  of  a  crest 
influences  in  some  unknown  way  the  development  of  the 
ascending  branches  of  the   premaxillary  bone,  and   of  the 


Chap.  VIL  CORKELATION   OF   GEOWTH.  289 

inner  processes  of  the  nasal  bones  ;  and  likewise  the  shape  of 
the  external  orifice  of  the  nostrils.  There  is  a  plain  and 
curious  correlation  between  a  crest  of  feathers  and  the  im- 
perfectly ossified  condition  of  the  skull.  Not  only  does  this 
hold  good  with  nearly  all  crested  fowls,  but  likewise  with 
tufted  ducks,  and  as  Dr.  Giinther  informs  me  with  tufted 
geese  in  Germany. 

Lastly,  the  feathers  composing  the  crest  in  male  Polish 
fowls  resemble  hackles,  and  differ  greatly  in  shape  from  those 
in  the  crest  of  the  female.  The  neck,  wing-coverts,  and  loins 
in  the  male  bird  are  properly  covered  with  hackles,  and  it 
would  appear  that  feathers  of  this  shape  have  spread  by 
correlation  to  the  head  of  the  male.  This  little  fact  is  in- 
teresting ;  because,  though  both  sexes  of  some  wild  gallina- 
ceous birds  have  their  heads  similarly  ornamented,  yet  there 
is  often  a  difference  in  the  size  and  shape  of  feathers  forming 
tbeir  crests.  Furthermore,  there  is  in  some  cases,  as  in  the 
male  Gold  and  in  the  male  Amherst  pheasants  (P.  pidiis  and 
amliersticB),  a  close  relation  in  colour,  as  well  as  in  structure, 
between  the  plumes  on  the  head  and  on  the  loins.  It  would 
therefore  appear  that  the  same  law  has  regulated  the  state  of 
the  feathers  on  the  head  and  body,  both  with  species  living 
under  natural  conditions,  and  with  birds  which  have  varied 
ander  domestication. 


20 


290  DOMESTIC   DUCKS.  CHAP.Ym. 


CHAPTER  YIII. 

DUCK — (lOOSE — PEACOCK — TURKEY GUINEA-FOWI. —  CANARY- 
BIRD GOLD-FISH HIVE-BEES — SILK-MOTHS. 

DUCKS,  SEVERAL  BREEDS  OF — PROGRESS  OF  DOMESTICATION — ORIGIN  OF 
FROM  THE  COMMON  WILD-DUCK — DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  DIFFERENT  BREE]>S 
— OSTEOLOGICAL  DIFFERENCES — EFFECTS  OF  USE  AND  DI6USE  ON  THE 
LmB-BONES. 

GOOSE,  ANCIENTLY  DOMESTICATED — LITTLE  VARIATION  OF — SEBASTOl'OL 
BREED. 

PEACOCK,   ORIGIN   OF  BLACK-SHOULDERED   BREED. 

TURKEY,  BREEDS  OF — CROSSED  WITH  THE  UNITED  STATES  SPECIES — 
EFFECTS   OF   CLIMATE   ON. 

GUINEA-FOWL,  (JANARY-BFRD,  GOLD-FISH,  HIVE-BEES. 
SILK- MOTHS,    SPECIES    and    breeds    of — anciently    domesticated — 

CARE  IN  THEIR  SELECTION — DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  DIFFERENT  RACES — IN 
THE  EGG,  CATERPILLAR.  AND  COCOON  STATES — INHERITAJ^CE  OF  CHA- 
RACTERS— I3IPERFECT  WINGS — LOST  INSTINCTS — CORRELATED  CHARACTERS. 

I  WILL,  as  in  previous  cases,  first  briefly  describe  the  chief 
domestic  breeds  of  the  duck : — 

Breed  1.  Common  T>omestic  Duch. — Yaries  inuch  in  colour  and 
in  proportions,  and  differs  in  instincts  and  disposition  from  the 
wild  duck.  There  are  several  sub-breeds : — (1)  The  Aylesbnix  of 
great  size,  white,  with  pale-yellow  beak  and  legs ;  abdominal  dermal 
sack  largely  developed.  (2)  The  Eouen,  of  great  size,  coloured  like 
the  wild  duck,  with  green  or  mottled  beak ;  dermal  sack  largely 
developed.  (8)  Tufted  Duck,  with  a  large  top-knot  of  fine  dow^ny 
feathers,  supported  on  a  fleshy  mass,  with  the  skull  perforated 
beneath.  The  top-knot  in  a  duck  wiiicli  I  imported  from  Holland 
was  two  and  a  half  inches  in  diameter.  (4)  Labrador  (or  Canadian, 
or  Buenos  Ayres,  or  East  Indian) ;  plumage  entirely  black ;  beak 
broader,  relatively  to  its  length,  than  in  the  wild  duck ;  eggs  slightly 
tinted  with  black.  This  sub-breed  perhaps  ought  to  be  ranked  as 
a  breed;  it  includes  two  sub -varieties,  one  as  large  as  the  common 
domestic  duck,  which  I  have  kept  alive,  and  the  other  smaller  and 
often  capable  of  flight.^  I  presume  it  is  this  latter  sub-variety 
which  has  been  described  in  Frani-e  ^  as  flying  w^ell,  being  rather 
wild,  and  when  cooked  having  the  flavour  of  the  wild  duck ;  never- 


»  'Poultrv  Chronicle '  (1854),  vol.  ^  Dj.    Tiirral,  in  '  Bull.  Soc.  cl'Ac- 

\\,  p.  91,  aud  vol.  i.  p.  330  climat.,'  torn.  vii.  1860,  p.  541. 


Chap.  VIII.  EXTEENAL   DIFFERENCES.  291 

theless  this  sub-yariety  is  polj'gamoiis,  like  other  domesticated 
ducks  and  unlike  the  wild  duck.  These  black  liabrador  ducks 
breed  true ;  but  a  case  is  given  by  Dr.  Turral  of  the  French  sub- 
variety  producing  young  with  some  wdiite  feathers  on  the  head  and 
neck,  and  with  an  ochre-coloured  patch  on  the  brepst. 

Bkeed  2.  Hook-hilled  Duck. — This  bird  presents  a/  extraordinary 
appearance  from  the  downward  curvature  of  the  beak.  The  head  is 
often  tufted.  The  common  colour  is  white,  but  some  are  coloured 
like  wild  ducks.  It  is  an  ancient  breed,  having  been  noticed  in 
1676.^  It  shows  its  prolonged  domestication  by  almost  incessantly 
laying  eggs,  like  the  fowls  which  are  called  everlasting  layers."^ 

Breed  3.  Call  Duck. — Remarkable  from  its  small  size,  and  from 
the  extraordinary  loquacity  of  the  female.  Beak  short.  These 
birds  are  either  white,  or  coloured  like  the  wild  duck. 

Breed  4.  Pengnln  Duck. — This  is  the  most  remarkable  of  all  the 
breeds,  and  seems  to  have  originated  in  the  Malayan  archipelago. 
It  walks  with  its  body  extremely  erect,  and  with  its  thin  neck 
stretched  straight  upwards.  Beak  rather  short.  Tail  upturned, 
including  only  18  feathers.     Femur  and  metatarsus  elongated. 

Almost  all  naturalists  admit  that  the  several  breeds  are 
descended  from  the  common  wild  duck  (Anas  hosclias)  ;  most 
fanciers,  on  the  other  hand,  take  as  usual  a  very  diiferent 
view.^  Unless  we  deny  that  domestication,  prolonged  during 
centuries,  can  affect  even  such  unimportant  characters  as 
colour,  size,  and  in  a  slight  degree  proportional  dimensions 
and  mental  disposition,  there  is  no  reason  whatever  to  doubt 
that  the  domestic  duck  is  descended  from  the  common  wild 
species,  for  the  one  differs  from  the  other  in  no  important 
character.  We  have  some  historical  evidence  with  respect  to 
the  period  and  progress  of  the  domestication  of  the  duck.  It 
was  unknown^  to  the  ancient  Egyptians,  to  the  Jew's  of  the 
Old  Testament,  and  to  the  Greeks  of  the  Homeric  period. 
About  eighteen  centuries  ago  Columella  '^  and  Varro  speak  of 

'  Willughby's     'Ornithology,'     by  *  Rev.    E.  S.    Dixon,  'Ornamenfnl 

Ray,    p.    381.       This    breed    is    also  and    Domestic    Poultry'    (1848),    p. 

figured    by    Albin,    in    1734,    iu   his  117.     Mr.  B.   P.   Brent,  in  '  Pouhry 

'Nat.  Hist,  of  Birds,'  vol.  ii.  p.  86.  Chronicle,'  vol.  iii.,  1855,  p.  512. 

*  F.  Cuvier,  in 'Annates  dulMuse'um,'  ^  Crawfurd    on    the    'Relation    of 

torn.  ix.  p.   128,  says   that   moulting  Domesticated  Animals  to  Civilisation,' 

and  incubation  alone  stops  these  ducks  read  before  the  Brit.  Assoc,  at  Oxford, 

laying.      Mr.   B.   P.   Brent    makes   a  1860. 

similar  remark  in  the  '  Poultry  Chro-  ^  Dureau  de  la  Malle,  in  '  Annales 

aicie,'  1855,  vol.  iii.  p.  512.  des  Sciences  Nat.,'  torn.  xvii.  p.  164; 


292  DOMESTIC    DUCKS.  Chap.  VIII. 

the  necessity  of  keeping  ducks  in  netted  enclosures  like  otlier 
wild  fowl,  so  tliat  at  this  period  there  was  danger  of  their 
flying  away.  Moreover,  the  plan  recommended  by  Columella 
to  those  who  wish  to  increase  their  stock  of  ducks,  namely 
to  collect  the  eggs  of  the  wild  bird  and  to  place  them  under 
a  hen,  shows,  as  Mr.  Dixon  remarks,  "  that  the  duck  had 
not  at  this  time  become  a  naturalized  and  prolific  inmate  of 
the  Eoman  poultry-yard."  The  origin  of  the  domestic  duck 
from  the  wild  species  is  recognised  in  nearly  every  language 
of  Europe,  as  Aldrovandi  long  ago  remarked,  by  the  same 
name  being  applied  to  both.  The  wild  duck  h.ig  a  wide 
range  from  the  Himalayas  to  North  America.  It  crosses 
readily  with  the  domestic  bird,  and  the  crossed  offspring  are 
perfect!}^  fertile. 

Both  in  North  America  and  Europe  the  wild  duck  has  been 
found  easy  to  tame  and  breed.  In  Sweden  this  experiment 
was  carefully  tried  by  Tiburtius ;  he  succeeded  in  rearing 
wild  ducks  for  three  generations,  but,  though  they  were 
treated  like  common  ducks,  they  did  not  vary  even  in  a 
single  feather.  The  young  birds  suffered  from  being  allowed 
to  swim  about  in  cold  water,^  as  is  known  to  be  the  case, 
though  the  fact  is  a  strange  one,  with  the  young  of  the 
common  domestic  duck.  An  accurate  and  well-known  ob- 
server in  England^  has  described  in  detail  his  often  repeated 
and  successful  experiments  in  domesticating  the  wild  duck. 
Young  birds  are  easily  reared  from  eggs  hatched  under  a 
bantam;  but  to  succeed  it  is  indispensable  not  to  place  the 
eggs  of  both  the  wild  and  tame  duck  under  the  same  hen, 
for  in  this  case  "  the  young  wild  ducks  die  off,  leaving  their 
more  hardy  brethren  in  undisturbed  possession  of  their  foster- 
mother's  care.     The  difference  of  habit  at  the  onset  in  the 

and    torn.    xxi.    p.    55.       Rev.    E.    S.  the  taming  of  ducks  on  the  Mississippi. 

Dixon,  'Ornamental  Poultry,'  p.  118.  For  the  same  fact  in  England,  see  Mr. 

Tame  ducks  were  not  known  in  Aris-  Waterton    in   Loudon's  Mag.  of  Nat. 

totle's  time,  as  remarked  by  Volz,  in  Hist.,'  vol.  viii.    1835,  p.    542  ;    and 

his  '  Beitrage  zur   Kulturgeschichte,'  Mr.  St,  John,  'Wild    Sports  and  Nat. 

1852,  s.  78.  Hist,  of  the  Highlands,'  184-6,  p.  129. 

*  I  quote  this  account  from  '  Die  ^  Mr.   E.   Hewitt,    in    '  Journal    ol 

Enten-  und     Schwanenzucht,'     Ulm,  Horticulture,'     1862,     p.     773 ;    and 

1828,  s.  143.  See  Audubon's  '  Ornitho-  1863,  p.  39. 
logical  Biography,'  vol.  iii.  p.  168,  on 


Chap.  VIII.  EXTERNAL   DIFFERENCES.  293 

newlj^-hatclied  ducklings  almost  entails  such  a  result  to  a 
certainty."  The  wild  ducklings  were  from  the  first  quite 
tame  towards  those  who  took  care  of  them  as  long  as  they 
wore  the  same  clothes,  and  likewise  to  the  dogs  and  cats  of 
the  house.  They  would  even  snap  with  their  beaks  at  the 
dogs,  and  drive  them  away  from  any  sjDot  which  they  coveted. 
But  they  were  much  alarmed  at  strange  men  and  dogs. 
Differently  from,  what  occurred  in  Sweden,  Mr.  Hewitt  found 
that  his  young  birds  always  changed  and  deteriorated  in 
character  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  generations  ;  not- 
withstanding that  great  care  was  taken  to  prevent  their 
crossing  with  tame  ducks.  After  the  third  generation  his 
birds  lost  the  elegant  carriage  of  the  wild  species,  and  began 
to  acquire  the  gait  of  the  common  duck.  They  increased  in 
size  in  each  generation,  and  their  legs  became  less  fine.  The 
white  collar  round  the  neck  of  the  mallard  became  broader 
and  less  regular,  and  some  of  the  longer  primary  wing-feathers 
became  more  or  less  white.  When  this  occurred,  Mr.  Hewitt 
destroyed  nearly  the  whole  of  his  stock  and  procured  fresh 
eggs  from  wild  nests ;  so  that  he  never  bred  the  same  family 
for  more  than  five  or  six  generations.  His  birds  continued 
to  pair  together,  and  never  became  polygamous  like  the 
common  domestic  duck.  I  have  given  these  details,  because 
no  other  case,  as  far  as  I  know,  has  been  so  carefully  re- 
corded by  a  competent  observer  of  the  progress  of  change 
in  wild  birds  reared  for  several  generations  in  a  domestic 
condition. 

From  these  considerations  there  can  hardly  be  a  doubt  that 
the  wild  duck  is  the  parent  of  the  common  domestic  kind ; 
nor  need  we  look  to  other  species  for  the  parentage  of  the 
more  distinct  breeds,  namely.  Penguin,  Call,  Hook-billed, 
Tufted,  and  Labrador  ducks.  I  will  not  rej)eat  the  arguments 
ased  ii\  the  previous  chapters  on  the  improbability  of  man 
having  in  ancient  times  domesticated  several  species  since 
"become  unknown  or  extinct,  though  ducks  are  not  readily 
exterminated  in  the  wild  state; — on  some  of  the  supposed 
parent-species  having  had  abnormal  characters  in  comparison 
with  all  the  other  species  of  the  genus,  as  with  Hook-billed 
and  Penguin  ducks ; — on  all  the  breeds,  -as  far  as  is  known 


294  DOMESTIC    DUCKS.  Chai'.  VIIL 

being  fertile  together;^'' — on  all  the  breeds  having  the  same 
general  disposition,  instinct,  &c.  But  one  fact  bearing  on 
this  question  may  be  noticed:  in  the  great  duck  family,  one 
BiDBcies  alone,  namely,  the  male  of  A.  bosclias,  has  its  four 
middle  tail-feathers  curled  upwardly;  now  in  every  one 
of  the  above-named  domestic  breeds  these  curled  feathers 
exist,  and  on  the  supposition  that  they  are  descended  from 
distinct  species,  we  must  assume  that  man  formerly  hit 
upon  species  all  of  which  had  this  now  unique  character. 
Moreover,  sub  varieties  of  each  breed  are  coloured  almost 
exactly  like  the  wild  duck,  as  I  have  seen  with  the 
largest  and  smallest  breeds,  namely  Eouens  and  Call  ducks, 
and,  as  Mr.  Brent  states, ^^  is  the  case  with  Hook  billed 
ducks.  This  gentleman,  as  he  informs  me,  crossed  a  white 
Aylesbury  drake  and  a  black  Labrador  duck,  and  some  of 
the  ducklings  as  they  grew  up  assumed  the  plumage  of  the 
Maid  duck. 

With  respect  to  Penguins,  I  have  not  seen  many  specimens, 
and  none  were  coloured  precisely  like  the  wild  duck ;  but  Sir 
James  Brooke  sent  me  three  skins  from  Lombok  and  Bali,  in 
the  Malayan  archipelago ;  the  two  females  were  paler  and 
more  rufous  than  the  wild  duck,  and  the  drake  differed  in 
having  the  whole  under  and  upper  surface  (excepting  the 
neck,  tail-coverts,  tail,  and  wings)  silver-grey,  finely  pencilled 
with  dark  lines,  closely  like  certain  parts  of  the  plumage  of 
the  wild  mallard.  But  I  found  this  drake  to  be  identical  in 
every  feather  with  a  variety  of  the  common  breed  procured 
from  a  farm-yard  in  Kent,  and  I  have  occasionally  elsewhere 
seen  similar  specimens.  The  occurrence  of  a  duck  bred  under 
so  peculiar  a  climate  as  that  of  the  Malayan  archipelago, 
where  the  wild  species  does  not  exist,  with  exactly  the  same 


'"  I  have  met  with  several    state-  inter  se,  so   that  the  experiment  was 

ments  on  the  fertility  of  the  several  not     fully    tried.       Some    half-brea 

breeds    when    crossed.      Mr.    Yarrell  Penguins  and  Labradors   were  again 

assured  me    that    Call    and    common  crossed    with    Penguins,    and    subse- 

ducks  are  perfectly  fertile  together.  quently  bred  by  me  inter  se,  and  they 

I    crossed    Hools-billed    and    common  were  extremely  fertile, 
ducks,  and   a  Penguin  and  Labrador,  "   '  Poultry  Chronicle,'   1855,  vol 

and    the    crossed    Ducks    were    quite  iii.  p.  512. 
fertile,  though   they   were   not    bred 


Chap.  Vlll.  EXTERNAL   DIFFERENCES.  295 

■plumage  as  may  occasionally  be  seen  in  our  farm-yards,  is  a 
fact  worth  notice.  Nevertheless  the  climate  of  the  Malayan 
archipelago  apparently  tends  to  cause  the  duck  to  vary  much, 
for  Zollinger/ 2  speaking  of  the  Penguin  breed,  says  that  in 
Lombok  "  there  is  an  unusual  and  very  wonderful  variety  of 
ducks."  One  Penguin  drake  which  I  kept  alive  differed  from 
those  of  which  the  skins  were  sent  me  from  Lombok,  in 
having  its  breast  and  back  partially  coloured  with  chestmit- 
brown,  thus  more  cjosely  resembling  the  Mallard. 

Prom  these  several  facts,  more  especially  from  the  drakes 
of  all  the  breeds  having  curled  tail-feathers,  and  from  certain 
sub-varieties  in  each  breed  occasionally  resembling  in  general 
plumage  the  wild  duck,  we  may  conclude  with  confidence 
that  all  the  breeds  are  descended  from  A.  hoschas. 

I  will  now  notice  some  of  the  peculiarities  characteristic  of  the 
several  breeds.  The  eggs  vary  in  colour ;  some  common  ducks 
laying  pale-greenish  and  others  quite  white  eggs.  The  eggs  which 
are  first  laid  during  each  season  by  the  black  Labrador  duck,  are 
tinted  black,  as  if  rubbed  with  ink.  A  good  observer  assured  me 
that  one  year  his  ducks  of  this  breed  laid  almost  perfectly  white 
eggs.  Another  curious  case  shows  what  singular  variations  some- 
times occur  and  are  inherited;  Mr.  HanselP^  relates  that  he  had 
a  common  duck  which  always  laid  eggs  with  the  yolk  of  a  dark- 
brown  colour  like  melted  glue ;  and  the  young  ducks,  hatched  from 
these  eggs,  laid  the  same  kind  of  eggs,  so  that  the  breed  had  to  be 
destroyed. 

The  Hook-billed  duck  is  highly  remarkable  (see  fig.  of  skull, 
woodcut  No.  39);  and  its  peculiar  beak  has  been  inherited  at 
least  since  the  year  1676.  This  structure  is  evidently  analogous 
with  that  described  in  the  Baj2^adotten  carrier  pigeon.  Mr.  Brent  ^^ 
says  that,  when  Hook-billed  ducks  are  crossed  with  common  ducks, 
"  many  young  ones  are  jDroduced  with  the  upper  mandible  shorter 
than  the  lower,  which  not  unfrequently  causes  the  death  of  the 
bird."  With  ducks  a  tuft  of  feathers  on  the  head  is  by  no  means  a 
rare  occurrence ;  namely,  in  the  True-tufted  breed,  the  Hook-billed, 
the  common  farm-yard  kind,  and  in  a  duck  having  no  other  pecu- 
liarity which  was  sent  to  me  from  the  Malayan  archipelago.  The 
tuft  is  only  so  far  interesting  as  it  affects  the  skull,  which  is  thus 
rendered  shghtly  more  globular,  and  is  perforated  by  numerous 
apertures.     Call  ducks  are  remarkable  from  their   extraordinary 


»2  'Journal   of  f'le  Indian  Archi-       (1849-1850),  p.  2353. 
pelago,'  vol.  V.  p.  834.  *•*  'Poultry  Chronicle,'  1855,  vol, 

^^  'The    Zoologist,'  vols,   vii.,  viii.       iii.  p.  512. 


296  DOMESTIC   DUCKS.  Chat.  VIII 

loquacity:  tlie  drake  only  hisses  like  common  drakes;  nevertheless, 
when  paired  with  the  common  duck,  he  transmits  to  his  female 
offspring  a  strong  quacking  tendency.  This  loquacity  seems  at 
first  a  surprising  character  to  have  been  acquire  1  under  domesti- 
cation. But  the  voice  varies  in  the  different  breeds;  Mr.  Brent ^^ 
says  that  Hook-billed  ducks  are  very  loquacious,  and  that  Eouens 
utter  a  "dull,  loud,  and  monotonous  cry,  easily  distinguishable  by 
an  experienced  ear."  As  the  loquacity  of  the  Call  duck  is  highly 
serviceable,  these  birds  being  used  in  decoys,  this  quality  may  have 
been  increased  by  selection.  For  instance,  Colonel  Hawker  says,  if 
young  wild  ducks  cannot  be  got  for  a  decoy,  "  by.  way  of  make-shift, 
select  tame  birds  which  are  the  most  clamorous,  even  if  their  colour 
should  not  be  like  that  of  wild  ones."  ^^  It  has  been  erroneously 
asserted  that  Call  ducks  hatch  their  eggs  in  less  time  than  common 
ducks, ^' 

The  Penguin  duck  is  the  most  remarkable  of  all  the  breeds ;  the 
thin  neck  and  body  are  carried  erect ;  the  wings  are  small ;  the  tail 
is  upturned ;  and  the  thigh-bones  and  metatarsi  are  considerably 
lengthened  in  proportion  with  the  same  bones  in  the  wild  duck. 
In  live  specimens  examined  by  me  there  were  only  eighteen  tail- 
feathers  instead  of  twenty  as  in  the  wild  duck ;  but  I  have  also 
found  only  eighteen  and  nineteen  tail-feathers  in  two  Labrador 
ducks.  On  the  middle  toe.  in  three  specimens,  there  were  twenty- 
seven  or  twenty-eight  scutellse,  whereas  in  two  wild  ducks  there  were 
thirty-one  and  thirty-two.  The  Penguin  when  crossed  transmits 
with  much  power  its  peculiar  form  of  body  and  gait  to  its  offspring  ; 
this  was  manifest  with  some  hybrids  raised  in  the  Zoological 
Gardens  between  one  of  these  birds  and  the  Egyptian  goose  ^* 
{Anser  cegyptiacus),  and  likewise  with  some  mongrels  which  I 
raised  between  the  Penguin  and  Labrador  duck.  1  am  not  much 
surprised  that  some  writers  should  maintain  that  this  breed  must 
be  descended  from  an  unknown  and  distinct  species ;  but  from  the 
reasons  already  assigned,  it  seems  to  me  far  more  probable  that  it 
is  the  descendant,  much  modified  by  domestication  under  an 
unnatural  climate,  of  Anas  hoschas. 

Osteological  Characters — The  skulls  of  the  several  breeds  differ 
from  each  other  and  from  tlie  skull  of  the  wdld  duck  in  very  little 
except  in  the  proportional  length  and  curvature  of  the  premaxil- 
laries.  These  latter  bones  in  the  Call  duck  are  short,  and  a  line 
drawn  from  their  extremities  to  the  summit  of  the  skull  is  nearly 
Ftraight,  instead  of  being  concave  as  in  the  common  duck ;  so  that 


^5  'Poultry    Chronicle,'    vol.      iii,  ^^  'Cottage   Gardener,'  April   9th, 

1855,  p.  3 L2.  With  respect  to  Rouens,  1861. 
see  ditto,  vol.  i.,  1854,  p.  167.  ^*  These  hybrids  have  been  described 

'^  Col.   Hawker's  '  Instructions   to  by     M.     Selys-Longchamps     in     the 

^ouno-    Sportsmen,'    quoted    by    Mr.  'Bulletins    (torn.    xii.   No   10)  Acad. 

Dixon  in  his   '  Ornamental    Poultry,'  Roy.  de  Bruxelles.' 
p.  125. 


Chap.  YIII.     DIFFERENCES   IN   THEIE  SKELETONS. 


297 


the  skull  resembles  that  of  a  small  goose.  In  the  Hook-billed  duck 
(tig.  5y;,  these  same  bones  as  well  as  the  lower  jaw  curve  down- 
wards in  a  most  remarkable  manner,  as  reprebcnted.  In  the 
Labrador  duck  the  premaxillaries  are  rather  broader  than  in  the 
wild  duck ;  and  in  two  skulls  of  this  breed  the  vertical  ridges  ou 
each  side  of  the  supra-occipital  bone  are  very  prominent.  In  the 
Penguin  the  premaxillaries  are  relatively  shorter  than  in  the  wild 
duck;  and  the  inferior  points  of  the  paramastoids  more  prominent. 
In  a  Dutch  tufted  duck,  the  skull  under  the  enormous  tuft  was 
slightly  more  globular  and  was  perforated  by  two  large  apertures ; 
in  this  skull  the  lachrymal  bones  were  produced  much  further 
backwards,  so  as  to  have  a  different  shape  and  nearly  to  touch  the 
post.  lat.  processes  of  the  frontal  bones,  thus  almost  completing  the 
bony  orbit  of  the  eye.     As  the  quadrate  and  pterygoid  bones  are  of 


Fig  39.— SkuUs,  viewed  laterally,  reducea  to  iwo-thirds  of  the  natural  size.    A.  Wild  Duck. 

B.  Hook-billed  Duck. 

such  complex  shape  and  stand  in  relation  with  so  many  other 
bones,  I  carefully  compared  them  in  all  the  principal  breeds;  but 
excepting  in  size  they  presented  no  difference. 

Vertehroi  and  Bibs, — In  one  skeleton  of  the  Labrador  duck  there 
were  the  usual  fifteen  cervical  vertebrae  and  the  usual  nine  dorsal 
vertebrae  bearing  ribs;  in  the  other  skeleton  there  were  fifteen 
cervical  and  ten  dorsal  vetebrse  with  ribs ;  nor,  as  far  as  could  be 
judged,  was  this  owing  merely  to  a  rib  ha,Ying  been  developed  on 
the  first  lumbar  vertebra;  for  in  both  skeletons  the  lumbar 
vertebrse  agreed  perfectly  in  number,  shape,  and  size  with  those  of 
the  wild  duck.     In  two   skeletons  of  the  Call  duck   there   were 


298 


DOMESTIC    DUCKS. 


Chap  VIII, 


fifteen  cervical  and  nine  dorsal  vertebrae  ;  in  a  third  skeleton  small 
ribs  were  attached  to  the  so-called  tifteenth  cervical  vertebra^ 
making  ten  pairs  of  ribs  ;  but  these  ten  ribs  do  not  correspond,  or 
arise  from  the  same  vertebra,  with  the  ten  in  the  above-mentioned 
Labrador  duck.  In  the  Call  duck,  which  had  small  ribs  attached 
to  the  tifteenth  cervical  vertebra,  the  haemal  spines  of  the  thirteenth 
and  fourteenth  (cervical)  and  of  the  seventeenth  (dorsal)  vertebras 
corresponded  with  the  spines  on  the  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and 
eighteenth  vertebrae  of  the  wild  duck:  so  that  each  of  these 
vertebrae  had  acquired  a  structure  proper  to  one  posterior  to  it  in 

position.  In  the  eighth  cervical 
vertebra  of  this  same  Call  duck 
(fig.  40,  B),  the  two  branches  of  the 
haemal  spine  stand  much  closer 
together  than  in  the  wild  duck 
(A),  and  the  descending  haemal 
processes  are  much  shortened. 
In  the  Penguin  duck  the  neck 
from  its  thinness  and  erectness 
falsely  appears  (as  ascertained  by 
measurement)  to  be  much  elon- 
gated, but  the  cervical  and  dorsal 
vertebrae  present  no  difference; 
the  posterior  dorsal  vertebrae, 
however,  are  more  completely 
anchylosed  to  the  pelvis  than  in 
the  wild  duck.  The  Aylesbury 
duck  has  fifteen  cervical  and  ten 
dorsal  vertebrae  furnished  with 
ribs,  but  the  same  number  of 
lumbar,  sacral,  and  caudal  verte- 
brae, as  far  as  could  be  traced,  as 
in  the  wild  duck.  The  cervical 
vertebrae  in  this  same  duck  (fig. 
40,  D)  were  much  broader  and  thicker  relatively  to  their  length  than 
in  the  wild  (C)  ;  so  much  so,  that  I  have  thought  it  worth  while  to 
give  a  sketch  of  the  twelfth  cervical  vertebra  in  these  two  birds. 
From  the  foregoing  statements  w^e  see  that  the  fifteenth  cervical 
vertebra  occasionally  becomes  modified  into  a  dorsal  vertebra,  mil 
when  this  occurs  all  the  adjoining  vertebrae  are  modified.  We  also 
see  that  an  additional  dorsal  vertebra  bearing  a  rib  is  occafi  nilly 
developed,  the  number  of  the  cervical  and  lumbar  vertebrae 
apparently  remaining  the  same  as  usual 

I  examined  the  bony  enlargement  of  the  trachea  in  the  ma^es  of 
the  Penguin,  Call,  Hook-billed,  Labrador,  and  Aylesbury  breeds; 
and  in  all  it  was  identical  in  shape. 

The  V'dvii^  is  remarkably  uniform  ;  but  in  the  skeleton  of  the 
Hook-billed  duck  the  anterior  part  is  much  bowed  inwards  ;  in  the 
Aylesbury  and  some  other  breeds  the  ischiadic  foramen  is  Jess 


Fig.  4^. — Cprvical  VertebrEe,  of  natural  size. 
A.  Eighth  cervical  vertebra  of  Wild  Duck, 
viewed  on  haemal  surface.  B.  Ein;litti 
cervical  vertebra  of  Call  Duck,  viewed  as 
above  C.  Twelfth  cervical  vertebra  of 
Wild  Dack  viewed  laterally.  D.  Twelfth 
corvicdl  vertebra  of  Aylesbury  Duck, 
viewed  laterally. 


CnAr.  VIII 


EFFECTS   OF   USE   AND   DISUSE. 


2\n) 


elongated.  In  tlie  sternum,  furcnlum,  coracoids,  and  scapulsB,  the 
differences  are  so  slight  and  so  variable  as  not  to  be  worth  notice, 
except  that  in  two  skeletons  of  the  Penguin  duck  the  terminal 
portion  of  the  scapula  was  much  attenuated. 

In  the  bones  of  the  leg  and  wing  no  modification  in  shape  could 
be  observed.  But  in  the  Penguin  and  Hook-billed  ducks,  the 
terminal  phalanges  of  the  wing  are  a  little  shortened.  lu  the 
former,  the  femur,  and  metatarsus  (but  not  the  tibia)  are  con- 
siderably lengthened,  relatively  to  the  same  bones  in  the  wild  duck, 
and  to  the  wing-bones  in  both  birds.  This  elongation  of  the  log- 
bones  could  be  seen  whilst  the  bird  was  alive,  and  is  no  doubt 
connected  with  its  peculiar  upright  manner  of  walking.  In  a 
large  Aylesbury  duck,  on  the  other  hand,  the  tibia  was  the  only 
bone  of  the  leg  which  relatively  to  the  other  bones  was  slightly 
lengthened. 

On  the  effects  of  the  increased  and  decreased  Use  of  the  Limhs. — In 
all  the  breeds  the  bones  of  the  wing  (measured  separately  after 
having  been  cleaned)  relatively  to  those  ot  the  leg  have  become 
slightly  shortened,  in  comparison  with  the  same  bones  in  the  wild 
duck,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  following  table : — 


Length  of  Femur, 

Length  of  Humerus, 

Name  of  Breed. 

Tibia,  and  Meta- 

Radius, and  Meta- 

Or as 

tarsus  together. 

carpus  together. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Wild  mallard      

7-14 

9-28 

100:  129 

Avlesbury 

8-64 

10-43 

100  :  120 

Tufted  (Dutch) 

8-25 

9-83 

100  :  119 

Penguin       

7-12 

8-78 

100  :  123 

Call      

6-20 

7-77 

100  :  125 

Length  of  same 

Length  of  all  the 

Bones. 

Bones  of  Wing. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Wild  duck  (another  speci- 

men)          

6-85 

10-07 

100  :  147 

Common  domestic  duck    . . 

8-15 

11-26 

100  :  138 

In  the  foregoing  table  we  see,  by  comparison  with  the  wild  duck, 
that  the  reduction  in  the  length  of  the  bones  of  the  wing,  re- 
latively to  those  of  the  legs,  though  slight,  is  universal.  The 
reduction  is  least  in  the  Call  duck,  which  has  the  power  and  the 
habit  of  frequently  flying. 

In  weight  there  is  a  greater  relative  difference  between  the  bonoa 
of  the  leg  and  wing,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  following  table; — 


300 


DOMESTIC   DUCKS. 


CSAP.  ^^III. 


Name  of  Breed. 

Weight  of  Femur,           Weight  of 
Tibia,  and         i  Humerus,  Radius, 
Metatarsus.        1   and  Metacarpus. 

Or  as 

Wild  mallard 

Aylesbury 

Hooked -bill       

Tufted  (Dutch)        ..      .. 

Penguin 

Labrador    

Call 

Grains. 

54 
164 
107 
111 

75 
141 

57 

Grail,  s. 
97 

204 
160 

148 

90-5 
165 

93 

100  :  179 
100  :  124 
100  :  149 
100  :  133 
100  :  120 
100  :  117 
100  :  163 

Wild  (another  specimen) 
Common  domestic  duck.. 

Weight  of  all  the 

Bones  of  the 
Leg  and  Foot. 

Weight  of  all  the 

Bones  of  the 

Wing. 

100  :  173 
100  :  124 

Grains. 

66 

127 

Grains. 
115 
158 

In  these  domesticated  birds,  the  considerably  lessened  weight  of 
the  bones  of  the  wing  (i.  e.  on  an  average,  twenty-five  per  cent,  of 
their  proper  proportional  weight),  as  well  as  their  slightly  lessened 
length,  relatively  to  the  leg-bones,  might  follow,  not  from  any 
actual  decrease  in  the  wing-bones,  but  from  the  increased  weight 
and  length  of  the  bones  of  the  legs.  The  first  of  the  two  tables  on 
the  next  page  shows  that  the  leg-bones  relatively  to  the  weight  of 
the  entire  skeleton  have  really  increased  in  weight ;  but  the  second 
table  shows  that  according  to  the  same  standard  the  wing-bones 
have  also  really  decreased  in  weight;  so  that  the  relative  dis- 
proportion shown  in  the  foregoing  tables  between  the  wing  and  leg- 
bones,  in  comparison  with  those  of  the  wild  duck,  is  partly  due  to 
the  increase  in  weight  and  length  of  the  leg-bones,  and  partly  to 
the  decrease  in  weight  and  length  of  the  wing-bones. 

With  respect  to  the  two  following  tables,  I  may  first  state  that  I 
tested  tliem  by  taking  another  skeleton  of  a  wild  duck  and  of  a 
common  domestic  duck,  and  by  comparing  the  weight  of  all  the 
bones  of  the  leg  with  all  those  of  the  wings,  and  the  result  was  the 
same.  In  the  first  of  these  tables  we  see  that  the  leg-bones  in  each 
case  have  increased  in  actual  weight.  It  might  have  been  expected 
that,  with  the  increased  or  decreased  weight  of  the  entire  skeleton, 
the  leg-bones  would  have  become  proportionally  heavier  or  lighter ; 
but  their  greater  weight  in  all  the  breeds  relatively  to  the  other 
bones  can  be  accounted  for  only  by  these  domestic  birds  having 
used  their  legs  in  walking  and  standing  much  more  than  the  wild, 
for  they  never  fly,  and  the  more  artificial  breeds  rarely  swim.  In 
the  second  table  we  see,  with  the  exception  of  one  case,  a  plain 
reduction  in  the  weight  of  the  bones  of  the  wing,  and  this  no  doubt 
has  resulted  from  their  lessened  use.     The  one  exceptional  case; 


Chap.  VIII. 


EFFECTS   OF   USE   AND   DISUSE. 


301 


Name  of  Breed. 

Weight  of  entire 
Slceleion. 
(N.B.     One  Metatar- 
sus   and    Foot    was 
remo%ed    from  each 
skeleton,  as    it   had 
been  accidentally  lost 
in  two  cases.) 

Weighl  of 

Femur, 
Tibia,  and 
Metatarsus. 

Or  as 

Wild  mallard        

Aylesbury 

Tufted  (Dutch) 

Penguin         

Call  (from  Mi-.  Fox)     . .      . . 

Grains. 

8.39 

1925 

1404 

871 

717 

Grains. 

54 

164 

111 

75 

57 

1000:  61 
1000  :  85 
] 000  :  79 
1000  :  S6 
lOuO  :  79 

Wild  mallai  d        

Aylesbury 

Tufted  (Dutch) 

Penguin         

Calf  (from  Mr.  Baker) 
Call  (from  Mr.  Fox)    . .      . . 

Weight  of  Skeleton 
as  above. 

Weight  of 

Humerus, 

Radius  and 

Metacarpus. 

1000:115 
lOOO  :  105 
1000:  105 
1000  :  103 
1000  :  109 
1000  :  129 

Grains. 
839 
1925 
1404 
871 
914 
717 

Grains. 

97 
204 
148 

90 
100 

92 

namely,  in  one  of  the  Call  ducks,  is  in  truth  no  exception,  for  this 
bird,  was  constantly  in  the  habit  of  flying  about ;  and  I  have  seen 
it  day  after  day  rise  from  my  grounds,  and  fly  for  a  long  time  in 
circles  of  more  than  a  mile  in  diameter.  In  this  Call  duck  there  is 
not  only  no  decrease,  but  an  actual  increase  in  the  weight  of  the 
wing-bones  relatively  to  those  of  the  wild-duck  ;  and  tliis  probably 
is  consequent  on  the  remarkable  lightness  and  thinness  of  all  the 
bones  of  the  skeleton. 

Lastly,  I  weighed  the  furculum,  coracoids,  and  scapula  of  a  wild 
duck  and  of  a  common  domestic  duck,  and  I  found  that  their 
weight,  relatively  to  that  of  the  whole  skeleton,  was  as  one  hundred 
in  the  former  to  eighty-nine  in  the  latter ;  this  shows  that  these 
bones  in  the  domestic  duck  have  been  reduced  eleven  per  cent,  of 
their  due  proportional  weight.  The  prominence  of  the  crest  of  the 
sternum,  relatively  to  its  length,  is  also  much  reduced  in  all  the 
domestic  breeds.  These  changes  have  evidently  been  caused  by 
the  lessened  use  of  the  wings. 

It  is  well  known  tliat  several  birds,  belonging  to  different 
Orders,  and  inhabiting  oceanic  islands,  have  their  wings 
greatly  reduced  in  size  and  are  incapable  of  flight.  I  sug- 
gested in  my  '  Origin  of  Species '  that,  as  these  birds  are  not 


302  DOMESTIC   GOOSE.  Chap.  VIII 

persecuted  by  any  enemies,  the  reduction  of  their  wings  had 
probably  been  caused  by  gradual  disuse.  Hence,  during  the 
earlier  stages  of  the  process  of  reduction,  such  birds  would 
probably  have  resembled  our  domesticated  ducks  in  the  state 
of  their  organs  of  flight.  This  is  the  case  with  the  water- 
hen  (Gallinula  nesiotis)  of  Tristan  d'Acunha,  which  "  can 
flutter  a  little,  but  obviously  uses  its  legs,  and  not  its  wings, 
as  a  mode  of  escape."  Now  Mr.  Sclater  ^^  finds  in  this  bird 
that  the  wings,  sternum,  and  coracoids  are  all  reduced  in 
length,  and  the  crest  of  the  sternum  in  depth,  in  comparison 
with  the  same  bones  in  the  European  water-hen  (G.  chloropus). 
On  the  other  hand,  the  thigh-bones  and  pelvis  are  increased 
in  length,  the  former  by  four  lines,  relatively  to  the  same 
bones  in  the  common  water-hen.  Hence  in  the  skeleton  of 
this  natural  species  nearly  the  same  changes  have  occurred, 
onl}^  carried  a  little  further,  as  with  our  domestic  ducks,  and 
in  this  latter  case  I  presume  no  one  will  dispute  that  they 
have  resulted  from  the  lessened  use  of  the  wings  and  the  in- 
creased use  of  the  legs. 

The  Goose. 

This  bird  deserves  some  notice,  as  hardly  any  other  anciently 
domesticated  bird  or  quadruped  has  varied  so  little.  That 
geese  were  anciently  domesticated  we  know  from  certain 
verses  in  Homer;  and  from  these  birds  having  been  kept 
(388  B.C.)  in  the  Capitol  at  Rome  as  sacred  to  Juno,  which 
sacredness  implies  great  antiquity. ^"^  That  the  goose  has 
varied  in  some  degree,  we  may  infer  from  naturalists  not 
being  unanimous  with  respect  to  its  wild  parent-form ; 
though  the  difficulty  is  chiefly  due  to  the  existence  of  three 
or  four  closely  allied  wild  European  species. ^^  A  large 
majority  of  capable  judges  are  convinced , that  our  geese  are 
descended  from   the   wild   Grey -leg   goose  (J.,  ferus) ;    the 

19 '  Proc.    Zoolog.    Soc.,'   1861,    p.  Poultry,'  by  Eev.  E.  S.  Dixon,  1848, 

261.  P-  132.     The  goose  figured  on   the 

20 '  Ceylon,'  by  Sir  J.  E.  Tennent,  Egyptian  monuments  seems  to  have 

1859.  vol.  i.  p.  485;  also  J.  Crawfurd  been  the  Eed  goose  of  Egypt. 
on  the 'Relation  of  Domest.  Animals  21  Macgillivray's  'British    Birds,' 

to    Civilisation,'   read    before    Brit.  vol.  iv.  p.  593. 
Assoc.  1860.    See  also  '  Ornamental 


Chap  Vin.  DOMESTIC   GOOSE.  803 

young  of  wliicli  can  easily  be  tamed. ^^  This  species,  when 
crossed  with  the  domestic  goose,  produced  in  the  Zoological 
Gardens,  as  I  was  assured  in  1849,  perfectly  fertile  offspring.^^ 
Yarrell  '^^  has  observed  that  the  lower  part  of  the  trachea  of 
the  domestic  goose  is  sometimes  flattened,  and  that  a  ring  of 
white  feathers  sometimes  surrounds  the  base  of  the  beak 
1'liese  characters  seem  at  first  sight  good  indications  of  a 
cross  at  some  former  period  with  the  white-fronted  goose 
(^A.  albifrons) ;  but  the  white  ring  is  variable  in  this  latter 
species,  and  we  must  not  overlook  the  law  of  analogous  varia- 
tion ;  that  is,  of  one  species  assuming  some  of  the  chai  acters 
of  allied  species. 

As  the  goose  has  proved  so  little  flexible  in  its  organization 
under  long-continued  domestication,  the  amount  of  variation 
which  it  has  undergone  may  be  worth  giving.  It  has  increased 
in  size  and  in  productiveness  ;^^  and  varies  from  white  to  a 
dusky  colour.  Several  observers  ^^  have  stated  that  the 
gander  is  more  frequently  white  than  the  goose,  and  that 
when  old  it  almost  invariably  becomes  white ;  but  this  is  not 
the  case  with  the  parent-form,  the  A.  ferus.  Here,  again,  the 
law  of  analogous  variation  may  have  come  into  play,  as  the 
almost  snow-white  male  of  the  Rock  goose  {Bernicla  antarctica) 
standing  on  the  sea- shore  by  his  dusky  partner  is  a  sight 
well  known  to  those  who  have  traversed  the  sounds  of  Tierra 
del  Fuego  and  the  Falkland  Islands.  Some  geese  have  top- 
knots ;  and  the  skull  beneath,  as  before  stated,  is  perforated. 
A  sab-breed  has  lately  been  formed  with  the  feathers  reversed 
at  the  back  of  the  head  and  neck.^^  The  beak  varies  a  little 
in  size,  and  is  of  a  yellower  tint  than  in  the  wild  species ;  but 

22  Mr.  A.  Strickland  ('Annals   and  the  wild  goose  lays  from  fire  to  eight 

Mag.   of"  Nat.  Hist.,'  3rd  series,  vol.  eggs,  which  is  a  much  fewer  number 

iii.    1859,  p.  122)  reared  some  young  than  that  laid  by  our  domestic  goose. 

wiM  geese,  and  found  them  in  habits  ^s  -pj^g  Rev.  L.  Jenyns  seems  fir. t 

and   in  all  characters  identical   with  to  have  made  this  observation  in  his 

the  domestic  gocss.  *  British  Animals.'     See  also  Yarrell, 

^*  /See  also  Hunter's  '  Essays,' edited  and  Liixon  in  his  '  Ornamental   Poul- 

bv  Owen,  vol.  ii.  p.  822.  try  '  (p.  lo9),  and  •  Gardener's  Chroni- 

"2^  Yarrell's  'British  Birds,' vol.  iii.  cle,'  1857,  p.  45. 

p.  142.  27  11^,   Bartlet  exhibited   the  head 

2*  L.  Lloyd,  '  Scandinavian  Adven-  and  neck  of  a  bird  thus  characterised 

lures,'  1854,  vol.  ii.  p.  413,  says  that  before  the  Zoological  Soc,  Feb.  18G0. 


304:  DOMESTIC   GOOSE.  Chap.  VIII. 

its  colour  and  tliat  of  the  legs  are  toth.  slightly  variable.^'' 
This  latter  fact  deserves  attention,  because  the  colour  of  the 
legs  and  beak  is  highly  serviceable  in  discriminating  the 
several  closely  allied  wild  forms. ^^  At  onr  Shows  two  breeds 
are  exhibited ;  viz.  the  Embden  and  Toulouse ;  but  they 
differ  in  nothing  except  colour.^*'  Eecently  a  smaller  and 
singular  variety  has  been  imported  from  Sebastopol,^^  with 
the  scapular  feathers  (as  I  hear  from  Mr.  Tegetmeier,  who 
sent  me  specimens)  greatly  elongated,  curled,  and  even 
spirally  twisted.  The  margins  of  these  feathers  are  rendered 
plumose  b}^  the  divergence  of  the  barbs  and  barbules,  so  that 
they  resemble  in  some  degree  those  on  the  back  of  the  black 
Australian  swan.  These  feathers  are  likewise  remarkable 
from  the  central  shaft,  which  is  excessively  thin  and  trans- 
parent, being  split  into  fine  filaments,  which,  after  running  for 
a  space  free,  sometimes  coalesce  again.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that 
these  filaments  are  regularly  clothed  on  each  side  with  fine 
down  or  barbules,  precisely  like  those  on  the  proper  barbs  of 
the  feather.  This  structure  of  the  feathers  is  transmitted  to 
half-bred  birds.  In  Gallus  sonneratii  the  barbs  and  barbules 
blend  together,  and  form  thin  horny  plates  of  the  same  nature 
with  the  shaft :  in  this  variety  of  the  goose,  the  shaft  divides 
into  filaments  which  acquire  barbules,  and  thus  resemble  true 
barbs. 

Although  the  domestic  goose  certainly  differs  somewhat 
from  any  known  wild  species,  yet  the  amount  of  variation 
which  it  has  undergone,  as  compared  with  that  of  most 
domesticated  animals,  is  singularly  small.  This  fact  can  be 
partially  accounted  for  by  selection  not  having  come  largely 
into  play.  Birds  of  all  kinds  which  present  many  distinct 
races  are  valued  as  pets  or  ornaments ;  no  one  makes  a  pet  of 
the  goose  ;  the  name,  indeed,  in  more  languages  than  one,  is 
a  term  of  reproach.  The  goose  is  valued  for  its  size  and 
ilavour,  for  the  whiteness  of  its  feathers  which  adds  to  their 

^^  W.  Thompson,  '  Natural  Hist,  of  and   Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.,'  3rd  series, 

Ireland,'   :.851,  vol.   iii.   p.   31.     The  vol  iii.  1859  p.  122. 
Rev.  E.  S.  Dixon  gave  rae  some  infoi-  ^°  '  I'oultry  Chronicle,' vol.  i.,  1854; 

tnatioD  on  the  varying  colour  of  the  p.  498;  vol.  iii.  p.  210. 
beak  and  legs.  ^'   '  The    Cottage    Gardoner,*    Sept 

29  Mr.   A.    Strickland,  in  'Annals  4th,  1860,  p.  348. 


Chap.  VIII.  PEACOCK.  305 

value,  and  for  its  prolificness  and  tameness.  Tn  all  these 
points  the  goose  differs  from  the  wild  parent-form ;  and  these 
are  the  points  which  have  been  selected.  Even  in  ancient 
times  the  Roman  gourmands  valued  the  liver  of  the  ivliite 
goose;  and  Pierre  Belon^-^  in  1555  speaks  of  two  varieties, 
one  of  which  was  larger,  more  fecund,  and  of  a  better  colour 
than  the  other ;  and  he  expressly  states  that  good  managers 
attended  to  the  colour  of  their  goslings,  so  that  they  might 
know  which  to  preserve  and  select  for  breeding. 

The  Peacock. 

This  is  another  bird  which  has  hardly  varied  under  domesti- 
cation, except  in  sometimes  being  white  or  piebald.  Mr. 
Waterhouse  carefully  compared,  as  he  informs  me,  skins  of 
the  wild  Indian  and  domestic  bird,  and  they  were  identical 
in  every  respect,  except  that  the  plumage  of  the  latter  was 
perhaps  rather  thicker.  Whether  our  birds  are  descended 
from  those  introduced  into  Europe  in  the  time  of  Alexander, 
or  have  been  subsequently  imported,  is  doubtful.  They  do 
not  breed  very  freely  with  us,  and  are  seldom  kept  in  large 
numbers, — circumstances  which  would  greatly  interfere  with 
the  gradual  selection  and  formation  of  new  breeds. 

There  is  one  strange  fact  with  respect  to  the  peacock, 
namely,  the  occasional  appearance  in  England  of  the 
"japanned"  or  "black-shouldered"  kind.  This  form  has 
lately  been  named  on  the  high  authority  of  Mr.  Sclater  as  a 
distinct  species,  viz.  Pavo  nigrijpennis,  which  he  believes  will 
hereafter  be  found  wild  in  some  country,  but  not  in  India, 
where  it  is  certainly  unknown.  The  males  of  these  japanned 
birds  differ  conspicuously  from  the  common  peacock  in  the 
colour  of  their  secondary  wing-feathers,  scapulars,  wing- 
coverts,  and  thighs,  and  are  I  think  more  beautiful ;  they 
are  rather  smaller  than  the  common  sort,  and  are  alwa3'-a 
beaten  by  them  in  their  battles,  as  I  hear  from  the  Hon. 
A..  S.  G.  Canning.  The  females  are  much  paler  coloured  than 
those  of  the   common   kind.     Both   sexes,  as   Mr.  Canning 

'2 'L'Hist.  delaNaturedesOiseaux,'  being  preferred  by  the  Romans,  seo 
par  P.  Belon,  1555,  p.  156.  With  Isid.  GeotFroy  St.-Hilaive,  '  Hist  Nat. 
respect  to  the   livers   of  white    geese        Gen.,'  torn.  iii.  p.  58. 

21 


306  PEACOCK.  Chap.  VIII. 

informs  me,  are  wliite  wlieii  they  leave  tlie  egg,  and  tliey  differ 
from  the  young  of  the  white  variety  only  in  having  a  peculiar 
pinkish  tinge  on  their  wings.  These  japanned  birds,  though 
appearing  suddenly  in  flocks  of  the  common  kind,  propagate 
their  kind  quite  truly.  Although  they  do  not  resemble 
the  hj'brids  which  have  been  raised  between  P.  cristatus  and 
muticus,  nevertheless  they  are  in  some  respects  intermediate  in 
character  between  these  two  species ;  and  this  fact  favours, 
as  Mr.  Sclater  believes,  the  view  that  they  form  a  distinct 
and  natural  species.^"^ 

On  the  other  hand.  Sir  E.  Heron  states  ^*  that  this  breed 
suddenly  appeared  within  his  memory  in  Lord  Brownlow's 
large  stock  of  pied,  white,  and  common  peacocks.  The  same 
thing  occurred  in  Sir  J.  Trevelyan's  flock  composed  entirely 
of  the  common  kind,  and  in  Mr.  Thornton's  stock  of  common 
and  pied  peacocks.  It  is  remarkable  that  in  these  two  latter 
instances  the  black- shouldered  kind,  though  a  smaller  and 
weaker  bird,  increased,  "  to  the  extinction  of  the  previously 
existing  breed."  I  have  also  received  through  Mr.  Sclater  a 
statement  from  Mr.  Hudson  Gurney  that  he  reared  many 
years  ago  a  pair  of  black-shouldered  peacocks  from  the 
common  kind;  and  another  ornithologist.  Prof.  A.  Newton, 
states  that,  five  or  six  years  ago,  a  female  bird,  in  all  respects 
similar  to  the  female  of  the  black-shouldered  kind,  was 
produced  from  a  stock  of  common  peacocks  in  his  possession, 
Avhich  during  more  than  twenty  years  had  not  been  crossed 
with  birds  of  any  other  strain.  Mr.  Jenner  Weir  informs 
me  that  a  peacock  at  Blackheath  whilst  young  was  white, 
but  as  it  became  older  gradually  assumed  the  characters  of  the 
black-shouldered  variety ;  both  its  parents  were  common 
peacocks.  Lastly,  Mr.  Canning  has  given  a  case  of  a  female 
of  this  same  variety  appearing  in  Ireland  in  a  flock  of  the 
ordinary  kind.^^  Here,  then,  we  have  seven  well  authenticated 

*^  Mr.  Sclater  on  the  black-shoul-  feels  very  doubtful  on  this  head, 
dered    peacock    of     Latham,    '  Proc.  ^*  '  Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,'  April  14tnj 

Zoolog.  Soc.,'  April  24th,  1860.     Mr.  1835. 

Swinhoe  at  one  time  believed  ('Ibis,'  ^a  The  Field,  May   6th,   1871.      I 

July,   1868)  that   this  kind   of  pea-  am   much   indebted   to    Mr.  Canning 

fowl  was  found  wild  in  Cochin  China,  for   information   with   respect  to  his 

but  he  has  since  informed  me  that  he  birds- 


Chap.  VIIL  PEACOCK.  307 

cases  in  Great  Britain  of  japanned  birds,  having  suddenly 
appeared  within  recent  times  in  flocks  of  the  common  pea- 
fowl. This  variety  must  also  have  formerly  appeared 
in  Europe,  for  Mr.  Canning  has  seen  an  old  picture,  and 
anotlier  is  referred  to  in  the  '  Field,'  with  this  variety 
represented.  These  facts  seem  to  me  to  indicate  that  the 
japanned  peacock  is  a  strongly  marked  variety  or  "  sport,'* 
which  tends  at  all  times  and  in  many  places  to  reappear. 
This  view  is  supported  by  the  young  being  at  first  white 
like  the  young  of  the  white  breed,  which  is  undoubtedly  a 
variation.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  believe  the  japanned 
peacock  to  be  a  distinct  species,  we  must  suppose  that  in  all  the 
above  cases  the  common  breed  had  at  some  former  period  been 
crossed  by  it,  but  had  lost  every  trace  of  the  cross ;  yet 
that  the  offspring  of  these  birds  suddenly  and  completely 
reacquired  through  reversion  the  characters  of  P.  nigrijpennis. 
I  have  heard  of  no  other  such  case  in  the  animal  or  vegetable 
kingdom.  To  perceive  the  full  improbability  of  such  an 
occurrence,  we  may  suppose  that  a  breed  of  dogs  had  been 
crossed  at  some  former  period  with  a  wolf,  but  had  lost  every 
trace  of  the  wolf-like  character,  yet  that  the  breed  gave  birth 
in  seven  instances  in  the  same  country,  within  no  great 
length  of  time,  to  a  wolf  perfect  in  every  character ;  and  we 
must  further  suppose  that  in  two  of  the  cases,  the  newly 
produced  wolves  afterwards  spontaneously  increased  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  lead  to  the  extinction  of  the  parent 
breed  of  dogs.  So  remarkable  a  bird  as  the  P.  Nigrijpennis, 
when  first  imported,  would  have  realized  a  large  price  ;  it  is 
therefore  improbable  that  it  should  have  been  silently  in- 
troduced and  its  history  subsequently  lost.  On  the  whole 
the  evidence  seems  to  me,  as  it  did  to  Sir  E.  Heron,  to  be 
decisive  in  favour  of  the  japanned  or  black-shouldered  breed 
being  a  variation,  induced  by  some  unknown  cause.  On  this 
view,  the  case  is  the  most  remarkable  one  ever  recorded  of 
the  abrupt  appearance  of  a  new  form,  which  so  closely 
resembles  a  true  species  that  it  has  deceived  one  of  the  mosi 
experienced  of  living  ornithologists. 


308  TURKEY.  Chap.  VITl. 


The  Turkey. 

It  seems  fairly  well  established  by  Mr.  Gould,^^  that  the 
turkey,  in  accordance  with  the  history  of  its  first  intro- 
duction, is  descended  from  a  wild  Mexican  form,  which  had 
been  domesticated  by  the  natives  before  the  discovery 
of  America,  and  which  is  now  generally  ranked  as  a  local 
race,  and  not  as  a  distinct  species.  However  this  may  be, 
the  case  deserves  notice  because  in  the  United  States  wild 
male  turkeys  sometimes  court  the  domestic  hens,  which  are 
descended  from  the  Mexican  form,  "and  are  generally  received 
by  them  with  great  pleasure."  ^^  Several  accounts  have 
likewise  been  published  of  young  birds,  reared  in  the  United 
States  from  the  eggs  of  the  wild  species,  crossing  and  com- 
mingling with  the  common  breed.  In  England,  also,  this 
same  species  has  been  kept  in  several  parks ;  from  two  of 
which  the  Kev.  W.  D.  Fox  procured  birds,  and  they  crossed 
freely  with  the  common  domestic  kind,  and  during  many 
years  afterwards,  as  he  informs  me,  the  turkeys  in  his  neigh- 
bourhood clearly  showed  traces  of  their  crossed  parentage. 
We  here  have  an  instance  of  a  domestic  race  being  modified 
by  a  cross  with  a  distinct  wild  race  or  species.  F.  Michaux  ^^ 
suspected  in  1802  that  the  common  domestic  turkey  was  not 
descended  from  the  United  States  species  alone,  but  likewise 
from  a  southern  form,  and  he  went  so  far  as  to  believe  that 
English  and  French  turkeys  differed  from  having  different 
proportions  of  the  blood  of  the  two  parent-forms. 

English  turkeys  are  smaller  than  either  wild  form.  They 
have  not  varied  in  any  great  degree ;  but  there  are  some 
breeds  which  can  be  distinguished— as  Xorfolks,  Sufifolks, 
Whites,  and  Copper-coloured  (or  Cambridge),  all  of  which, 

^^  '•  Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,'  April  8th,  degenerates    in    India,  and    this   fact 

1856,  p.  61.     Prof.  Baird  believes  (as  indicates  that  it  was  not  aboriginally 

quoted  in  Tegetmeier's' Poultry  Book,'  an  inhabitant  of  the  lowlands  of  the 

1866,  p.  269)   that  our  turkeys  are  tropics. 

descended  from  a  West  Indian  species  ^^  Audubon's  'Ornithological    Bio- 

now  extinct.     But  besides  the  impro-  graphy.,'  vol.  i.,  1831,  pp.  4-13;  and 

bability  of  a  bird  having   long    ago  '  Naturalist's  Library,'  vol.  xiv.,  Birds, 

become    extinct    in    these    large    and  p.  138. 

luxuriant  islands,  it  appears  (as    we  ^*  F.  Michaux, '  Travels  in  N.  Ame- 

ehall  presently  see)  that  the  turkey  rica,'  1802,  Eng.  translat.,  p.  217. 


Chap.  VIII.  TURKEY.  309 

if  precluded  from  crossing  witli  other  breeds  propagate  their 
kind  truly.  Of  these  kinds,  the  most  distinct  is  the  small, 
hardy,  dull-black  Norfolk  turkey,  of  which  the  chickens  are 
black,  occasionally  with  white  patches  about  the  head.  The 
other  breeds  scarcely  differ  except  in  colour,  and  their  chickens 
are  generally  mottled  all  over  with  brownish-grey.^^  The  in- 
ferior tail-coverts  vary  in  number,  and  according  to  a  G  erman 
superstition  the  hen  lays  as  many  eggs  as  the  cock  has 
feathers  of  this  kind.*°  Albin  in  1 738,  and  Temminck  within  a 
much  later  period,  describe  a  beautiful  breed,  dusky-yellowish, 
brown  above  and  white  beneath,  with  a  large  top-knot  of 
soft  plumose  feather.  The  spurs  of  the  male  were  rudimentary. 
This  breed  has  been  for  a  long  time  extinct  in  Europe;  but 
a  living  specimen  has  lately  been  imported  from  the  east 
coast  of  Africa,  which  still  retains  the  top -knot  and  the 
same  general  colouring  and  rudimentary  spurs.^^  Mr.  Wilmot 
has  described'*^  a  white  turkey-cock  having  a  crest  formed  of 
"  feathers  about  four  inches  long,  with  bare  quills,  and  a  tuft 
of  soft  white  down  growing  at  the  end."  Many  of  the 
young  birds  inherited  this  kind  of  crest,  but  afterwards 
it  fell  off  or  was  pecked  out  by  the  other  birds.  This  is  an 
interesting  case,  as  with  care  a  new  breed  might  probably 
have  been  formed;  and  a  top-knot  of  this  nature  would  have 
been  to  a  certain  extent  analogous  to  that  borne  by  the  males 
in  several  allied  genera,  such  as  Euplocomus,  Lophophorus, 
and  Pavo. 

Wild  turkeys,  believed  in  every  instance  to  have  been  im- 
ported from  the  United  States,  have  been  kept  in  the  parks 
of  Lords  Powis,  Leicester,  Hill,  and  Derby.  The  Eev.  W.  D. 
Fox  procured  birds  from  the  two  first-named  parks,  and  he 
informs  me  that  they  certainly  differed  a  little  from  each 
other  in  the  shape  of  their  bodies  and  in  the  barred  plumage 
on  their  wings.  These  birds  likewise  differed  from  Lord 
Hill's  stock.     Some  of  the  latter  kept  at  Oulton  by  Sir  P. 

3»  <  Ornamental    Poetry,'    by     the  Oct.     31,    1868,    p.    233;    and    Mr. 

Rev.  E.  S.  Dixon,  1848,  p'.  34.  Tegetmeiei-  in  the  '  Fiehl,'  July   17, 

•'"  Bech&tein, 'Naturgesch.  Deutsch-  1869,  p.  46. 

lands,'  B.  iii.,  1793,  s.  309,  "-  'Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1852,  p 

<i  Mr.  Bartlett  in '  Land  and  Water,'  693 . 


310  GUINEA  FOWL.  Chap.  YIII 

Egerton,  though  precluded  from  crossing  Avith  common 
turkeys,  occasionally  produced  much  paler-coloured  birds, 
and  one  that  was  almost  white,  but  not  an  albino.  These 
half-wild  turkeys,  in  thus  differing  sliglitly  from  each  other, 
present  an  analogous  case  with  the  wild  cattle  kept  in  the 
several  British  parks.  We  must  suppose  that  such  differences 
have  resulted  from  the  prevention  of  free  intercrossing 
between  birds  ranging  over  a  wide  area,  and  from  the 
changed  conditions  to  which  they  have  been  exposed  in 
England.  In  India  the  climate  has  apparently  wrought  a 
still  greater  change  in  the  turkey,  for  it  is  described  by  Mr. 
Blyth'*^  as  being  much  degenerated  in  size,  "utterly  in- 
capable of  rising  on  the  wing,"  of  a  black  colour,  and  "  with 
the  long  pendulous  appendages  over  the  beak  enormously 
developed." 

The  Guinea  Fowl. 

Thk  domesticated  Guinea  fowl  is  now  believed  by  some 
naturalists  to  be  descended  fiom  the  Niimida  jptilorliynca,  which 
inhabits  very  hot,  and,  in  parts,  extremely  arid  districts  in 
Eastern  Africa ;  consequently  it  has  been  exposed  in  this 
country  to  extremely  different  conditions  of  life.  Nevertheless 
it  has  hardly  varied  at  all,  except  in  the  plumage  being  either 
paler  or  darker- coloured.  It  is  a  singular  fact  that  this  bird 
varies  more  in  colour  in  the  West  Indies  and  on  the  Spanish 
Main,  under  a  hot  though  humid  climate,  than  in  Europe.** 
The  Guinea  fowl  has  become  thoroughly  feral  in  Jamaica  and 
in  St.  Domingo,*^  and  has  diminished  in  size ;  the  legs  are 
black,  whereas  the  legs  of  the  aboriginal  African  bird  are 
said  to  be  grey.  This  small  change  is  worth  notice  on 
account  of  the  often- repeated  statement  that  all  feral  animals 
invariably  revert  in  every  character  to  their  original  type. 

^^  E.  Blyth,  in 'Annals  and  Mag.  singular    pale-coloured    varieties  im- 

of  Nat.  Hist.,'  1847,  vol.  xx.  p.  391.  ported  from  BarbaJoesand  Demerara. 

*''  Roulin    makes    this    remark    in  *'^  For     St.   Domingo,    see     M.    A. 

*  Mem.  de  divers  Savans,  I'Acad.  des  Salle,  in  '  Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc'  1857,  p. 

Sciences,'  torn,  vi.,  1835,  p.  349.    Mr.  236.     Mr.  Hill  remarks  to  me,  in  his 

flill,  of  Spanish  Town,  in  a  letter  to  letter,  on  the  colour  of  the  legs  of  the 

me,    describes    five    varieties    of   the  feral  birds  in  Jamaica. 
Guinea  fowl  in  Jan  aica,     I  have  seen 


Chap.  VIII.  CANAEY   BIRD.  313 


The  Canary  Bird. 

As  this  bird  has  been  recently  domesticated,  namely,  within 
the  last  350  years,  its  variability  deserves  notice.  It  has  been 
crossed  with  nine  or  ten  other  species  of  Fringillidae,  and 
some  of  the  hybrids  are  almost  completely  fertile ;  but  we 
have  no  evidence  that  any  distinct  breed  has  originated  from 
such  crosses.  Notwithstanding  the  modern  domestication  of 
the  canary,  many  varieties  have  been  produced ;  even  before 
the  year  1718  a  list  of  twent^^-seven  varieties  was  published 
in  France,**^  and  in  1779  a  long  schedule  of  the  desired  quali- 
ties was  printed  by  the  London  Canary  Society,  so  that 
methodical  selection  has  been  practised  during  a  considerable 
period.  The  greater  number  of  the  varieties  differ  only  in 
colour  and  in  the  markings  of  their  plumage.  Some  breeds 
however,  differ  in  shape,  such  as  the  hooped  or  bowed  canaries, 
and  the  Belgian  canaries  with  their  much  elongated  bodies. 
Mr.  Brent^^  measured  one  of  the  latter  and  found  it  eio-ht 

o 

inches  in  length,  whilst  the  wild  canary  is  only  five  and  a 
quarter  inches  long.  There  are  top-knotted  canaries,  and  it  is 
a  singular  fact  that,  if  two  top-knotted  birds  are  matched,  the 
young,  instead  of  having  very  fine  top-knots,  are  generally 
bald,  or  even  have  a  wound  on  their  heads.*^  It  would 
appear  as  if  the  top-knot  were  due  to  some  morbid  condition, 
which  is  increased  to  an  injurious  degree  when  two  birds  in 
this  state  are  paired.  There  is  a  feather-footed  breed,  and 
another  with  a  kind  of  frill  running  down  the  breast.  One 
other  character  deserves  notice  from  being  confined  to  one 
period  of  life,  and  from  being  strictly  inherited  at  the  same 
period ;  namely,  the  wing  and  tail  feathers  in  prize  canaries 
being  black,  "  but  this  colour  is  retained  only  until  tlie  first 
moult;    once   moulted,  the   peculiarity   ceases."'^^      Canaries 

*'  Mr,  B.  P.  Brent,  'The   Canary,  ^^  Bechstein,  <  Naturgesch.  d3r  Stu- 

British  Finches,'  &c.,  pp.  21,  30.  benvogel,'  1840,  s.  243;  see  s.  252,  on 

*'  'Cottage  Gardener,'  Dec.  11th,  the  inherited  song  of  Canarv-birds. 
1855,  p,  184:  an  account  is  here  With  respect  to  their  baldness,  see 
given  of  all  the  varibties.  For  many  also  W.  Kidd's  'Treatise  on  Song- 
measurements  of  the  wild  birds,  see  Birds.' 

Mr.  E.  Vernon  Harcourt,  ibid.,  Dec.  ^^  W.   Kidd's    '  Treatise   on   Song- 

25th,  1855,  p.  223,  Birds,'  p.  18 


312  GOLD-FISH.  Chap.  YIII. 

differ  mucli  in  disposition  and  ciiaracter,  and  in  some  small 
degree  in  song.  They  produce  eggs  three  or  four  times  during 
the  year. 

GOLD-FlSH. 

Besidks  mammals  and  birds,  only  a  few  animals  belonging  to 
the  other  great  classes  have  been  domesticated;  but  to  show 
that  it  is  an  almost  universal  law  that  animals,  when  removed 
from  their  natural  conditions  of  life,  vary,  and  that  races  can 
be  formed  when  selection  is  applied,  it  is  necessary  to  say  a 
few  words  on  gold-fish,  bees,  and  silk-moths. 

Gold-fish  (^Cyprinus  auratus)  were  introduced  into  Europe 
only  two  or  three  centuries  ago ;  but  they  have  been  ke]3t  in 
confinement  from  an  ancient  period  in  China.  Mr.  Blyth  ^^ 
suspects,  from  the  analogous  variation  of  other  fishes,  that 
ffolden-coloured  fish  do  not  occur  in  a  state  of  nature.  These 
fishes  frequently  live  under  the  most  unnatural  conditions, 
and  their  variability  in  colour,  size,  and  in  some  important 
points  of  structure  is  very  great.  M.  Sauvigny  has  described 
and  given  coloured  drawings  of  no  less  than  eightj^-nine 
varieties. ^^  Many  of  the  varieties,  however,  such  as  triple 
tail-fins,  &c.,  ought  to  be  called  monstrosities ;  but  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  draw  any  distinct  line  between  a  variation  and  a 
monstrosity.  As  gold-fish  are  kept  for  ornament  or  curiosity, 
and  as  "  the  Chinese  are  just  the  people  to  have  secluded  a 
chance  variety  of  any  kind,  and  to  have  matched  and  paired 
from  it,"  ^^  it  might  have  been  predicted  that  selection 
would  have  been  largely  practised  in  the  formation  of  new 
breeds  ;  and  this  is  the  case.  In  an  old  Chinese  work  it  is 
said  that  fish  with  vermilion  scales  were  first  raised  in  con- 
finement during  the  Sung  dynasty  (which  commenced  a.d. 
960),  "  and  now  they  are  cultivated  in  families  everywhere  for 
the  sake  of  ornament."  In  another  and  more  ancient  work,  it  is 
said  that  "  there  is  not  a  household  where  the  gold-fish  is  not 
cultivated,  in  rivalry  as  to  its  colour,  and  as  a  source  of 
profit,"  &c.^^     Although  many  breeds  exist,  it  is  a  singular 

50  The  '  Indian  Field,'  1858,  p.  255.  1858,  p.  255. 

*^  Yarrell's  '  British  Fishes,' vol.  i.  ^^  W.   F.  Mayers,  'Chinese  Nctes 

p.  319.  and  Queries,'  Aug,  1868,  p.  123. 
^-  Mr.  Blyth,  in  the '  Indian  Field.' 


CuAP.  YIIL  HIVE-BEES.  313 

fact  that  the  variations  are  often  not  inherited.  Sir  R. 
Heron  ^*  kept  many  of  these  fishes,  and  placed  all  the  de- 
formed ones,  namely,  those  destitute  of  dorsal  fins  and  those 
furnished  with  a  double  anal  fin,  or  triple  tail,  in  a  pond  by 
themselves  ;  but  they  did  "  not  produce  a  greater  proportion 
of  deformed  otfspring  than  the  perfect  fishes." 

Passing  over  an  almost  infinit^^  diversity  of  colour,  we  meet 
with  the  most  extraordinary  modifications  of  structure.  Thus, 
out  of  about  two  dozen  specimens  bought  in  London,  Mr. 
Yarrell  observed  some  Avith  the  dorsal  fin  extending  along 
more  than  half  the  length  of  the  back :  others  with  this  fin 
reduced  to  only  five  or  six  rays  :  and  one  with  no  dorsal  fin. 
The  anal  fins  are  sometimes  double,  and  the  tail  is  often  triple. 
This  latter  deviation  of  structure  seems  generally  to  occur 
"  at  the  expense  of  the  whole  or  part  of  some  other  fin ;  "  ^^ 
but  Bory  de  Saint-Vincent  ^^  saw  at  Madrid  gold-fish  furnished 
with  a  dorsal  fin  and  a  triple  tail.  One  variety  is  characterised 
by  a  hump  on  its  back  near  the  head ;  and  the  Eev.  L. 
Jenyns  °'^  has  described  a  most  singular  variety,  imported 
from  China,  almost  globular  in  form  like  a  Diodon,  with  "  the 
fleshy  part  of  the  tail  as  if  entirely  cut  away  ?  the  caudal  fin 
being  set  on  a  little  behind  the  dorsal  and  immediately  above 
the  anal."  In  this  fish  the  anal  and  caudal  fins  were  double ; 
the  anal  fin  being  attached  to  the  body  in  a  vertical  line  : 
the  eyes  also  were  enormously  large  and  protuberant. 

Hive-Bees. 

Bees  have  been  domesticated  from  an  ancient  period;  if 
indeed  their  state  can  be  considered  one  of  domestication,  for 
they  search  for  their  own  food,  with  the  exception  of  a  little 
geneially  given  to  them  during  the  winter.  Their  habitation 
is  a  hive  instead  of  a  hole  in  a   tree.     Bees,  however,  have 

5*  '  Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,'  May  25th,  "    '  Observations    in    Nat.    Hist.,' 

1842.  18-16,15.211.     Dr.  Gray  has  described, 

^^   Varrell's  'British  Fishes,'  vol.  i.  in  'Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.,' 

p.  319.  1860,  p.  151,  a  nearly  similar  variety, 

*^  'Diet.  Class.  d'Hist.  Nat.,'  torn.  but  destitute  of  a  dorsal  fin. 
V.  p.  276. 


314  HIVE-BEES.  Chap.  VIII. 

been  transported  into  almost  every  quarter  of  tlie  world,  so 
that  climate  ought  to  have  produced  whatever  direct  effect 
it  is  capable  of  producing.  It  is  frequently  asserted  that 
the  bees  in  different  parts  of  Great  Britain  differ  in  size, 
colour,  and  temper;  and  Godron^^  says  that  they  are 
generally  larger  in  the  south  than  in  other  parts  of  France  ; 
it  has  also  been  asserted  that  the  little  brown  bees  of  High 
liurgundy,  w^hen  transported  to  La  Bresse  become  large 
and  yellow  in  the  second  generation.  But  these  statements 
require  confirmation.  As  far  as  size  is  concerned,  it  is  known 
that  bees  produced  in  very  old  combs  are  smaller,  owing  to 
the  cells  having  become  smaller  from  the  successive  old 
cocoons.  The  best  authorities^^  concur  that,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Ligurian  lace  or  species,  presently  to  be 
mentioned,  distinct  breeds  do  not  exist  in  Britain  or  on  the 
Continent.  There  is,  however,  even  in  the  same  stock,  some 
variability  in  colour.  Thus,  Mr.  Woodbury  states,^^  that  he 
has  several  times  seen  queen  bees  of  the  common  kind  annu- 
lated  with  yellow-like  Ligurian  queens,  and  the  latter  dark- 
coloured  like  common  bees.  He  has  also  observed  variations 
in  the  colour  of  the  drones,  without  any  corresponding  differ- 
ence in  the  queens  or  workers  of  the  same  hive.  The  great 
apiarian,  Dzierzon,  in  answer  to  my  queries  on  this  subject, 
says,^^  that  in  Germany  bees  of  some  stocks  are  decidedly 
dark,  whilst  others  are  remarkable  for  their  yellow  colour. 
Bees  also  seem  to  differ  in  habits  in  different  districts,  for 
Dzierzon  adds,  "  If  many  stocks  with  their  offspring  are  more 
inclined  to  swarm,  whilst  others  are  richer  in  honey,  so  that 
some  bee-keepers  even  distinguish  between  swarming  and 
honey-gathering  bees,  this  is  a  habit  which  has  become  second 
nature,  caused  by  the  customary  mode  of  keeping  the  bees 

^^  '  De    I'Esp&ce,'    1859,    p.    459.  implicitly    trusted;    see  'Journal    of 

With  respect  to  the  bees  of  Burgundy,  Horticulture,'  July  14th,  1863,  p.  39. 
see  M.  Gerard,  art.  '  Espece,'  in  'Diet.  *"   'Journal  of  Horticulture,'  Sept. 

Univers.  d'Hist.  Nat.'  9th,    1862,    p.    463;    see   also    Herr 

°^  See  a,  discussion  on  this  subject,  Kleine  on  same  subject  (Nov.  11th,  p. 

in  answer  to  a  question  of  mine,  in  643),    who    sums    up,    that,    though 

'Journal  of  Horticilture,'  1862,  pp,  there  is  some  variability  in  colour,  no 

225-242 ;    also    Mr.    Bevan    Fox,    in  constant  or  perceptible  differences  can 

ditto,  1862,  p.  284  be  detected  in  the  bees  of  Germauy. 

^^  This  excellent  observer  may  be 


Chap.  VIII.  HIVE-BEES.  315 

and  the  pasturage  of  the  district.  For  example,  -what  a 
difference  in  this  respect  one  may  perceive  to  exist  between 
the  bees  of  the  Liineburg  heath  and  those  of  this  country  !  " 

"  Eemoving  an  old  queen  and  substituting  a  young 

one  of  the  current  year  is  here  an  infallible  mode  of  keeping 
the  strongest  stock  from  swarming  and  preventing  drone- 
breeding  ;  whilst  the  same  means  if  adopted  in  Hanover 
would  certainly  be  of  no  avail. '  I  j^rocured  a  hive  full  of 
dead  bees  from  Jamaica,  where  they  have  long  been  natural- 
ised, and,  on  carefully  comparing  them  under  the  microscope 
with  my  own  bees,  1  could  detect  not  a  trace  of  difference. 

This  remarkable  uniformity  in  the  hive-bee,  wherever  kept, 
may  probably  be  accounted  for  by  the  great  diificulty,  or 
rather  impossibility,  of  bringing  selection  into  j^lay  by  pairing 
particular  queens  and  drones,  for  these  insects  unite  only 
during  flight.  Nor  is  there  any  record,  with  a  single  partial 
exception,  of  any  person  having  separated  and  bred  from  a 
hive  in  which  the  workers  presented  some  appreciable  differ- 
CEce.  In  order  to  form  a  new  breed,  seclusion  from  other 
bees  would,  as  we  now  know,  be  indispensable ;  for  since  the 
introduction  of  the  Ligurian  bee  into  Germany  and  England, 
it  has  been  found  that  the  drones  wander  at  least  two  miles 
from  their  own  hives,  and  often  cross  with  the  queens  of  the 
common  bee.^^  The  Ligurian  bee.  although  perfectly  fertile 
when  crossed  with  the  common  kind,  is  ranked  by  most 
naturalists  as  a  distinct  species,  whilst  by  others  it  is  ranked 
as  a  variety :  but  this  form  need  not  here  be  noticed,  as  there 
is  no  reason  to  believe  that  it  is  the  product  of  domestica- 
tion. The  Egyptian  and  some  other  bees  are  likewise  ranked 
by  Dr.  Gerstacker,^^  but  not  by  other  highly  competent 
judges,  as  geographical  races;  he  grounds  his  conclusion 
in  chief  part  on  the  fact  that  in  certain  districts,  as  in  the 
Crimea  and  Ehodes,  they  vary  so  much  in  colour,  that  the 
several  geographical  races  can  be  closely  connected  by  inter- 
mediate forms. 

1  have  alluded  to  a  single  instance  of  the  separation  and 

®2  Mr.    Woodbury    has    published  '^^  '  Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist., 

several  such  accounts  in  'Journal  of       SrW  series,  vol   xi.  p.  339, 
Horticulture,'  1861  and  1862. 


816  SILK-MOTHS.  Chaf.  VIII. 

preservation  of  a  particular  stock  of  Lees.  Mr.  Lowe  ^*  pro- 
cured some  bees  from  a  cottager  a  few  miles  from  Edinburgh, 
and  perceived  that  they  differed  from  the  common  bee  in  tho 
hairs  on  the  head  and  thorax  being  lighter  coloured  and  more 
profuse  in  quantity.  From  the  date  of  the  introduction  of 
tlie  Ligurian  bee  into  Great  Britain  we  may  feel  sure  that 
tliese  bees  had  not  been  crossed  with  this  form.  Mr.  Lowe 
propagated  this  variety,  but  unfortunately  did  not  separate 
the  stock  from  his  other  bees,  and  after  three  generations  the 
new  character  was  almost  completely  lost.  Nevertheless,  as 
he  adds,  "  a  great  number  of  the  bees  still  retain  traces, 
though  faint,  of  the  original  colony."  This  case  shows  us 
what  could  probably  be  effected  by  careful  and  long- 
continued  selection  applied  exclusively  to  the  workers,  for, 
as  we  have  seen,  queens  and  drones  cannot  be  selected  and 
paired. 

SiLK-MOTHS. 

These  insects  are  in  several  respects  interesting  to  us,  more 
especially  because  they  have  varied  largely  at  an  early  period 
of  life,  and  the  variations  have  been  inherited  at  correspond- 
ing periods.  As  the  value  of  the  silk-moth  depends  entirely 
on  the  cocoon,  every  change  in  its  structure  and  qualities  has 
been  carefully  attended  to,  and  races  differing  much  in  the 
cocoon,  but  hardly  at  all  in  the  adult  state,  have  been  pro- 
duced. With  the  races  of  most  other  domestic  animals,  the 
young  resemble  each  other  closely,  whilst  the  adults  differ 
much. 

It  would  be  useless,  even  if  it  were  possible,  to  describe  all 
the  many  kinds  of  silk -worms.  Several  distinct  species  exist 
in  India  and  China  which  produce  useful  silk,  and  some  of 
these  are  capable  of  freely  crossing  with  the  common  silk- 
moth,  as  has  been  recently  ascertained  in  France.  Captain 
Ilutton^^  states  that  throughout  the  world  at  least  six  species 
have  been  domesticated ;  and  he  believes  that  the  silk-moths 
reai-ed  in  Europe  belong  to  two  or  three  species.     This,  how- 

^*  '  The    Cottage    Gardener,'  May,  "^  '  Transact.  Entomolog.  Soc.,'  3rd 

I8t)0,  p.  110;  and  ditto  in  'Journal  series,  vol.  iii.  pp.  143-173,  and  pp. 
of  Ilort./  1862,  p.  242.  295-331. 


Chap.  VIII.  THEIR  DIFFERENCES.  317 

ever,  is  not  tlie  opinion  of  several  capable  judges  who  have 
particularly  attended  to  the  cultivation  of  this  insect  in 
France;  and  hardly  accords  with  some  facts  presently  to  be 
given. 

The  common  silk-moth  {Bomhyx  mori)  was  brought  to  Con- 
stantinople in  the  sixth  century,  whence  it  was  carried  into 
Ital}^,  and  in  1494  into  France.^^  Everything  has  been 
favourable  for  the  variation  of  this  insect.  It  is  believed 
to  have  been  domesticated  in  China  as  long  ago  as  2700  b  c. 
It  has  been  kept  under  unnatuial  and  diversified  conditions 
of  life,  and  has  been  transported  into  many  countries.  There 
is  reason  to  believe  that  the  nature  of  the  food  given  to  the 
caterpillar  influences  to  a  certain  extent  the  character  of  the 
breed. ^^  Disuse  has  apparently  aided  in  checking  the  develop- 
ment of  the  wings.  But  the  most  important  element  in  the 
production  of  the  many  now  existing,  much  modified  races, 
no  doubt  has  been  the  close  attention  which  has  long  been 
applied  in  many  coiuitries  to  every  promising  variation. 
The  care  taken  in  Europe  in  the  selection  of  the  best  cocoons 
and  moths  for  breeding  is  notorious,^^  and  the  production  of 
eggs  is  followed  as  a  distinct  trade  in  parts  of  France.  I 
have  made  inquiries  through  Dr.  Falconer,  and  am  assured 
that  in  India  the  natives  are  equally  careful  in  the  process 
of  selection.  In  China  the  production  of  eggs  is  confined  to 
certain  favourable  districts,  and  the  raisers  are  precluded  by 
law  from  producing  silk,  so  that  their  whole  attention  may 
be  necessarily  given  up  to  this  one  object.^^ 

The  following  details  on  the  differences  between  the  several 
breeds  are  taken,  when  not  stated  to  the  contrary,  from  M.  Eobinet's 
excellent  work,'*^  which  bears  every  sign  of  care  and  large  experi- 
ence. The  eggs  in  the  different  races  vary  in  colour,  in  shape 
(being  round,  elliptic  or  oval),  and  in  size.  The  eggs  laid  in  June 
in  the  south  of  France,  and  in  July  in  the  central  provinces,  do  not 

*^  Godron, '  Del'Espece,' 1859,  torn.  ^^  /See,  for  instance,  M.  A.. deQuatre- 

i.  p.  460.     The  antiquity  of  the  silk-  fages'  '  Etudes  sur  les  Maladies  actu- 

■worm    in    China    is    given    on    the  elles  du  Ver  a  Soie,'  1859,  p.  101. 
authority  of  Stanislas  Julien.  ^^  My  authoi-ities  for  the  statements 

^'   See  the  remarks  of  Prof.  West-  will  be  given  in  the  chapter  on  Selec- 

wood,   Gen.   Hearsey,  and  others,    at  tion. 

the  meeting  of  the  Kntomolog.  Soc.  of  '*'  'Manuel  de  TEdiicateur  de  Vers 

London,  July,  1361.  i  Soie,'  1848. 


318  SILK-MOTHS.  "  Chap.  VIII. 

hatch  until  the  following  spring;  and  it  is  in  vain,  says  M.  Eohiuet, 
to  expose  them  to  a  temperature  gradually  raised,  in  order  that  the 
caterpillar  may  be  quickly  developed.  Yet  occasionally,  without 
any  known  cause,  batches  of  eggs  are  produced,  which  immediately 
begin  to  undergo  the  proper  changes,  and  are  hatched  in  from 
twenty  to  thirty  days.  From  these  and  some  other  analogous  facts 
it  may  be  concluded  that  the  Trevoltini  silkworms  of  Italy,  of  which 
the  caterpillars  are  hatched  in  from  fifteen  to  twenty  days,  do  not 
necessarily  form,  as  has  been  maintained,  a  distinct  species. 
Although  the  breeds  which  live  in  temperate  countries  produce 
eggs  which  cannot  be  immediately  hatched  by  artificial  heat,  yet 
when  they  are  removed  to  and  reared  in  a  hot  country  tney 
gradually  acquire  the  character  of  quick  development,  as  in  the 
Trevoltini  races. '^ 

Caterpillars. — These  vary  greatly  in  size  and  colour.  The  skin 
is  generally  white,  sometimes  mottled  with  black  or  grey,  and 
occasionally  quite  black.  The  colour,  however,  as  M.  Eobinet 
asserts,  is  not  constant,  even  in  perfectly  pure  breeds ;  except  in 
the  race  tigree,  so  called  from  being  marked  with  transverse  black 
stripes.  As  the  general  colour  of  the  caterpillar  is  not  correlated 
with  that  of  the  silk,^^  this  character  is  disregarded  by  cultivators, 
and  has  not  been  fixed  by  selection.  Captain  Hutton,  in  the  paper 
before  referred  to,  has  argued  with  much  force  that  the  dark  tiger- 
b'ke  marks,  which  so  frequently  appear  during  the  later  moults  in 
the  caterpillars  of  various  breeds,  are  due  to  reversion;  for  the 
caterpillars  of  several  allied  wild  species  of  Bombyx  are  marked 
and  coloured  in  this  manner.  He  separated  some  caterpillars  with 
the  tiger-like  marks,  and  in  the  succeeding  spring  (pp.  149,  298) 
nearly  all  the  caterpillars  reared  from  them  were  dark- brindled,  and 
the  tints  became  still  darker  in  the  third  generation.  The  moths 
reared  from  these  caterpillars  ^^  also  became  darker,  and  resembled 
in  colouring  the  wild  B.  liuHoni.  On  this  view  of  the  tiger-like 
marks  being  due  to  reversion,  the  persistency  with  which  they  are 
transmitted  is  intelligible. 

Several  years  ago  Mrs.  Whitby  took  great  pains  in  breeding 
silkworms  on  a  large  scale,  and  she  informed  me  that  some  of  her 
caterpillars  had  dark  eyebrows.  This  is  probably  the  first  step  in 
reversion  towards  the  tiger-like  marks,  and  I  was  curious  to  know 
whether  so  trifling  a  character  would  be  inherited.     At  my  request 


^'    Robinet,  ibid.,  pp.  12,  318.     I  would  ultimately  have  been  acquired, 

may  add  that  the  eggs  of  N^.  American  See  review  in  '  Athena3um,'  1844,  p. 

silkworms    taken    to    the    Sandwich  329,    of  J.  Jarves'    'Scenes    in     the 

Islands  produced  moths  at  very  irre-  Sandwich  Islands.' 

gular    periods;  and   the   moths  thus  "^  'The  Art  of  rearing  Silk-worms,' 

raised  yielded  eggs  which  were  even  translated  from  Count  Dandolo,  1825, 

worse    in    this    respect.     Some    were  p.  23. 

hatched  in   ten  days,  and  others  not  "  'Transact.   I'nt.  Soc.,' ut  supra, 

until  after  the  lapse  of  many  months.  pp.  153,  308, 
No  doubt  a  regular  '^arly  character 


Chap.  VIII.  THEIR   DIFFERENCES.  319 

she  separated  in  1848  twenty  of  these  caterpillars,  and  having  kept 
the  moths  separate,  bred  from  them.  Of  the  many  cateri^illars 
thus  reared,  "every  one  without  exception  had  eyebrows,  some 
darker  and  more  decidedly  marked  than  the  others,  but  all  had 
eyebrows  more  or  less  plainly  visible."  Black  caterpillars  occasion- 
ally appear  amongst  those  of  the  common  kind,  but  in  so  variable  a 
manner,  that,  according  to  M.  Robinet,  the  same  race  will  one  year 
exclusively  produce  white  caterpillars,  and  the  next  year  many 
black  ones ;  nevertheless,  I  have  been  informed  by  M.  A.  Bossi  of 
Geneva,  that,  if  these  black  caterpillars  are  separately  bred  from, 
they  reproduce  the  same  colour ;  but  the  cocoons  and  moths  reared 
from  them  do  not  present  any  difference. 

The  caterpillar  in  Europe  ordinarily  moults  four  times  before 
passing  into  the  cocoon  stage ;  but  there  are  races  "  a  trois  mues," 
and  the  Trevoltiui  race  likewise  moults  only  thrice.  It  might  have 
been  thought  that  so  important  a  physiological  difference  would 
not  have  arisen  under  domestication;  but  M.  Robinet^^  states  that, 
on  the  one  hand,  ordinary  caterpillars  occasionally  spin  their 
cocoons  after  only  three  moults,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  '*  presque 
toutes  les  races  a  trois  mues,  que  nous  avons  experimentees,  ont 
fait  quatre  mues  a  la  seconde  ou  a  la  troisieme  annee,  ce  qui 
semble  prouver  qu'il  a  suflS  de  les  placer  dans  des  conditions 
favoiables  pour  leur  rendre  une  faculte  qu'elles  avaient  perdue  sous 
des  influences  moins  favorables." 

Cocoons. — The  caterpillar  in  changing  into  the  cocoon  loses  about 
50  per  cent,  of  its  weight ;  but  the  amount  of  loss  differs  in  different 
breeds,  and  this  is  of  importance  to  the  cultivator.  The  cocoon  in 
the  different  races  presents  characteristic  differences;  being  largo 
or  small ;— nearly  spherical  with  no  constriction,  as  in  the  Race  de 
Loriol,  or  cylindrical,  with  either  a  deep  or  slight  constriction  in  the 
middle;  with  the  two  ends,  or  with  one  end  alone,  more  or  less 
pointed.  The  silk  varies  in  fineness  and  quality,  and  in  being 
nearly  white,  but  of  two  tints,  or  yellow.  Generally  the  colour  of 
the  silk  is  not  strictly  inherited  :  but  in  the  chapter  on  Selection  I 
shall  give  a  curious  account  how,  in  the  course  of  sixty-five  genera- 
tions, the  number  of  yellow  cocoons  in  one  breed  has  been  reduced 
in  France  from  one  hundred  to  thirty-five  in  the  thousand. 
According  to  Robinet,  the  white  race,  called  Sina,  by  careful 
selection  during  the  last  seventy-five  years,  "  est  arrivee  a  un  tel 
etat  de  purete,  qu'on  ne  voit  pas  un  seul  cocon  jaune  dans  des 
millions  de  cocons  blancs."  '^^  Cocoons  are  sometimes  formed,  as  is 
well  known,  entirely  destitute  of  silk,  which  yet  produce  moths ; 
unfortunately  Mrs.  Whitby  was  prevented  by  an  accident  from 
ascertaining  whether  this  character  would  prove  hereditary. 

Adult  stage. — I  can  find  no  account  of  any  constant  difference  in 
tiie  moths  of  the  most  distinct  races,  Mrs,  Whitby  assured  me 
that  there  was  none  in  the  several  kinds  bred  by  her;   and  I  have 


'4  Robinet,  ibid.,  p.  317  "  Robinet,  ibid.,  pp.  306-317. 


320  SILK-MOTHS.  Chap.  YIIL 

receiyed  a  similar  statement  from  the  eminent  naturalist,  M.  de 
Quatrefages.  Captain  Hutton  also  says '^'^  that  the  moths  of  all 
kinds  Yary  much  in  colour,  but  in  nearly  the  same  inconstant 
manner.  Considering  how  much  the  cocoons  in  the  several  races 
differ,  this  fact  is  of  interest,  and  may  probably  be  accounted  for 
on  the  same  princii)le  as  the  fluctuating  variability  of  colour  in  the 
caterpillar,  namely,  that  there  has  been  no  motive  for  selecting  and 
perpetuating  any  particular  variation. 

The  males  of  the  wild  Bombycidse  "  fly  swiftly  in  the  day-time 
and  evening,  but  the  females  are  usually  very  sluggish  and 
inactive."  ^^  In  several  moths  of  this  family  the  females  have 
abortive  wings,  but  no  instance  is  known  of  the  males  being 
incapable  of  flight,  for  in  this  case  the  species  could  hardly  have 
been  perpetuated.  In  the  silk-moth  both  sexes  have  imperfect, 
crumpled  wings,  and  are  incapable  of  flight ;  but  still  there  is  a 
trace  of  the  characLeristic  difference  in  the  two  sexes;  for  though, 
on  comparing  a  number  of  males  and  females,  I  could  detect  no 
difference  in  the  development  of  their  wings,  yet  I  was  assured  by 
Mrs.  Whitby  that  the  males  of  the  moths  bred  by  her  used  their 
wings  more  than  the  females,  and  could  flutter  downwards,  though 
never  upwards.  She  also  states  that,  hen  the  females  first 
emerge  from  the  cocoon,  their  wings  are  less  expanded  than  those 
of  the  male.  The  degree  of  imperfection,  however,  in  the  wings 
varies  much  in  different  races  and  under  different  circumstances. 
M.  Quatrefages'^  says  that  he  has  seen  a  number  of  moths  with 
their  wings  reduced  to  a  third,  fourth,  or  tenth  part  of  their  normal 
dimensions,  and  even  to  mere  short  straight  stumps  :  "  il  me  sctnble 
qu'il  y  a  la  un  veritable  arret  de  developpement  partiel."  On  the 
other  hand,  he  describes  the  female  moths  of  the  Andre  Jean  breed 
as  having  "  leurs  ailes  larges  et  etalees.  Un  seul  presente  quelques 
courbures  irregulieres  et  des  plis  anormaux."  As  moths  and  butter- 
flies of  all  kinds  reared  from  wild  caterpillars  under  confinement 
often  have  crippled  wings,  the  same  cause,  whatever  it  may  be,  has 
probably  acted  on  silk-moths,  but  the  disuse  of  their  wings  during 
so  many  generations  has,  it  may  be  suspected,  likewise  come  into 
play. 

The  moths  of  many  breeds  fail  to  glue  their  eggs  to  the  surface 
on  which  they  are  iaid,^^  but  this  proceeds,  according  to  Capt. 
Hutton,**°  merely  from  the  glands  of  the  ovipositor  being  weakened. 

As  with  other  long  domesticated  animals,  the  instincts  of  the 
silk-moth  have  suffered.  The  caterpillars,  when  placed  on  a  mul- 
berry-tree, often  commit  the  strange  mistake  of  devouring  the 
base  of  the  leaf  on  which  they  are  feeding,  and  conse(iuently  fall 

'6 '  Transact.  Ent.  Soc.,'  ut  supra,  ''^ '  Etudes  sur  les  Maladies  du  Ver 

p.  317.  a  Sole,'  1859,  pp.  304,  209. 

"■  Stephen's   Illustrations,  '  Haus-  ^9  Quatrefages,  '  Etudes,'   &c.,    p. 

tellata,'  vol.  ii.  p.  35.     See  also  Capt.  214. 

Hutton,  '  Transact.  Ent.  Soc.,'  ibid.,  so '  Transact.  Ent.  Soc.,'  ut  supra, 

p.  152.  p.  151. 


Chap.  VIII.  THEIK   DIFFERENCES.  321 

down;  but  they  are  capalDle,  according  to  M.  Eobinet,^^  of  again 
crawling  up  the  trunk.  Even  this  capacity  sometimes  fails,  for 
M.  Martins  ^^  placed  some  caterpillars  on  a  tree,  and  those  which 
fell  were  not  able  to  remount  and  pepshed  of  hunger ;  they  were 
even  incaj^able  of  passing  from  leaf  to  leaf. 

Some  of  the  modifications  which  the  silk-moth  has  undergone 
stand  in  correlation  with  one  another.  Thus,  the  eggs  of  the  moths 
which  produce  white  cocoons  and  of  those  which  produce  yellow 
cocoons  differ  slightly  in  tint.  The  abdominal  feet,  also,  of  the 
caterpillars  which  yield  white  cocoons  are  always  white,  whilst 
those  which  give  yellow  cocoons  are  invariably  yellow.^^  We  have 
seen  that  the  caterpillars  with  dark  tiger-like  stripes  produce 
moths  which  are  more  darkly  shaded  than  other  moths.  It  seems 
well  established^^  that  in  France  the  caterpillars  of  the  races  which 
produce  white  silk,  and  certain  black  caterpillars,  have  resisted, 
better  than  other  races,  the  disease  which  has  recently  devastated 
the  silk-districts.  Lastly,  the  races  differ  constitutionally,  for  some 
do  not  succeed  so  well  under  a  temperate  climate  as  others ;  and  a 
damp  soil  does  not  equally  injure  all  the  races.^^ 

From  these  various  facts  we  learn  that  silk-moths,  like  the 
higher  animals,  vary  greatly  under  lortg-continued  domes- 
tication. AVe  learn  also  the  more  important  fact  that  varia- 
tions may  occur  at  various  periods  of  life,  and  be  inherited  at 
a  corresponding  period.  And  finally  we  see  that  insects  are 
amenable  to  the  great  principle  of  Selection. 

81 '  Manuel    de  I'fiducateur,'  &c.,  12,  209,  214. 

p.  26.  s*  Robinet,  '  Manuel,'  &c.,  p.  803. 

82  Godron, '  De  TEspece,'  p.  462.  85  Robinet,  ibid.,  p.  15. 

83  Quatrefages,  '  Etudes,'  &c.,  pp. 


23 


CULTIVATED   PLANTS.  Chap.  IX. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

CULTIVATED  PLANTS  :    CEREAL  AND  CULINARY  PLANTS.   " 
PRELIMINARY    REMARKS    on    the    number    and    parentage    gw 

CULTIVATED     PLANTS FIRST     STEPS     IN     CULTIVATION GEOGRAPHICAL 

DISTRIBUTION   OF   CULTIVATED   PLANTS. 

CEREALIA. — DOUBTS  ox  the  number  of  species, wheat;  varieties 

OF — INDIVIDUAL    VARIABILITY — CHANGED     HABITS — SELECTION — ^ANCIENT 

HISTORY    OP    THE    VARIETIES. MAIZE:    GREAT   VARIATION    OF — DIRECT 

ACTION   OF   CLIMATE   OX. 

CULINARY     PLANTS. — cabbages:    varieties    of,  in    foliage    and 

STEMS,    BUT    NOT    IN    OTHER    PARTS — PARENTAGE    OF — OTHER    SPECIES    OF 

BRASSICA. PliAS  :    AMOUNT    OF    DIFFERENCE    IN    THE    SEVERAL    KINDS, 

CHIEFLY    IN    THE     PODS     AND     SEED — SOME     VARIETIES     CONSTANT,     SOMil 

HIGHLY     VARIABLE DO     NOT     INTERCROSS. BE \NS. POTATOES  : 

NUMEROUS   VARIETIES   OF — DIFFERING   LITTLE,   EXCEPT   IN   THE   TUBEP.S — 
CHARACTERS   INHERITED. 

I  SHALL  not  enter  into  so  mucli  detail  on  the  variability  of 
cultivated  plants,  as  in  the  case  of  domesticated  animals. 
The  subject  is  involved  in  much  difficulty.  Botanists  have 
generally  neglected  cultivated  varieties,  as  beneath  their 
notice.  In  several  cases  the  wild  prototype  is  unknown  or 
doubtfully  known ;  and  in  other  cases  it  is  hardly  possible  to 
distinguish  between  escaped  seedlings  and  truly  wild  plants, 
so  that  there  is  no  safe  standard  of  comparison  by  which  to 
judge  of  any  supposed  amount  of  change.  Not  a  few  bota- 
nists believe  that  several  of  our  anciently  cultivated  plants 
have  become  so  profoundly  modii&ed  that  it  is  not  possible 
now  to  recognise  their  aboriginal  parent-forms.  Equally 
perplexing  are  the  doubts  whether  some  of  them  are  de- 
scended from  one  species,  or  from  several  inextricably  com- 
mingled by  crossing  and  variation.  Variations  often  joass 
into,  and  cannot  be  distinguished  from,  monstrosities ;  and 
monstrosities  are  of  little  significance  for  our  purpose.  Many 
varieties  are  propagated  solely  by  grafts,  buds,  layers,  bulbs, 
&c.,  and  frequently  it  is  not  known  how  far  their  peculiarities 
can  be    transmitted  by  seminal  generation.      Nevertheless. 


Chap.  IX.  PRELIMINARY   REMARKS  '623 

some  facts  of  value  can  be  gleaned  :  and  other  facts  will 
hereafter  be  incidentally  given.  One  chief  object  in  the 
two  following  chapters  is  to  show  how  many  characters  in 
our  cultivated  plants  have  become  variable. 

Before  entering  on  details  a  few  general  remarks  on  the 
origin  of  cultivated  plants  may  be  introduced.  M.  Alph.  De 
Candolle^  in  an  admirable  discussion  on  this  subject,  in  which 
he  displays  a  wonderful  amount  of  knowledge,  gives  a  list  of 
157  of  the  most  useful  cultivated  plants.  Of  these  he 
believes  that  85  are  almost  certainly  known  in  their  wild 
state;  but  on  this  head  other  competent  judges^  entertain 
great  doubts.  Of  40  of  them,  the  origin  is  admitted  by  M. 
De  Candolle  to  be  doubtful,  either  from  a  certain  amount  of 
dissimilarity  which  they  present  when  compared  with  their 
nearest  allies  in  a  wild  state,  or  from  the  probability  of  the 
latter  not  being  truly  wild  plants,  but  seedlings  escaped 
from  culture.  Of  the  entire  157,  32  alone  are  ranked  by 
M.  De  Candolle  as  quite  unknown  in  their  aboriginal  con- 
dition. But  it  should  be  observed  that  he  does  not  include 
in  his  list  several  plants  which  present  ill-defined  characters, 
namelj'-,  the  various  forms  of  pumpkins,  millet,  sorghum, 
kidney-bean,  dolichos,  capsicum,  and  indigo.  Nor  does  he 
include  flowers ;  and  several  of  the  more  anciently  cultivated 
flowers,  such  as  certain  roses,  the  common  Imperial  lily,  the 
tuberose,  and  even  the  lilac,  are  said^  not  to  be  known  in  the 
wild  state. 

From  the  relative  numbers  above  given,  and  from  other 
arguments  of  much  weight,  M.  De  Candolle  concludes  that 
plants  have  rarely  been  so  much  modifi.ed  by  culture  that 
they  cannot  be  identified  with  their  wild  prototypes.  But 
on  this  view,  considering  that  savages  probably  would  not 
have  chosen  rare  plants  for  cultivation,  that  useful  plants  are 
generally  conspicuous,  and  that  they  could  not  have  been 
the  inhabitants  of  deserts  or  of  remote  and  recently  discovered 

* 'Geographie  botanique  raisonnee,'  Plants,' by   Dr.  A.    rargioni-Tozzetti. 

1855,  pp.  810  to  991.  See   also  'Edinburgh  Review,'  1866, 

2  Review  by  Mr.  Bentham  in  '  Hort.  p.  510. 
Journal,'  vol.  ix.  1855,  p.  133,  entitled,  ^  '  Hist.  Notes,'  as  above,  by  Tar- 

'  Historical     Notes      on      cultivated  gioni-Tozzetti. 


324  CULTIVATED   PLANTS.  Chap  IX. 

islands,  it  appears  strange  to  me  tliat  so  many  of  our  culti- 
vated plants  should  "be  still  unknown  or  only  doubtfully 
known  in  the  wild  state.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  many  of 
these  plants  have  been  profoundly  modified  by  culture,  the 
difficulty  disappears.  The  difficulty  would  also  be  removed 
if  they  have  been  exterminated  during  the  progress  of  civili- 
sation; but  M.  De  Candolle  has  shown  that  this  probably  has 
seldom  occurred.  As  soon  as  a  plant  was  cultivated  in  any 
country,  the  half-civilised  inhabitants  would  no  longer  have 
need  to  search  the  whole  surface  of  the  land  for  it,  and  thus 
lead  to  its  extirpation ;  and  even  if  this  did  occur  during  a 
famine,  dormant  seeds  would  be  left  in  the  ground.  In 
tropical  countries  the  wild  luxuriance  of  nature,  as  was  long 
ago  remarked  by  Humboldt,  overpowers  the  feeble  efforts  of 
man.  In  anciently  civilised  temperate  countries,  where  the 
whole  face  of  the  land  has  been  greatly  changed,  it  can  hardly 
be  doubted  that  some  plants  have  become  extinct;  never- 
theless De  Candolle  has  shown  that  all  the  plants  historically 
known  to  have  been  first  cultivated  in  Europe  still  exist  here 
in  the  wild  state. 

MM.  Loiseleur-Deslongchamps*  and  De  Candolle  have  re- 
marked that  our  cultivated  plants,  more  especially  the  cereals, 
must  originally  have  existed  in  nearly  their  present  state ;  for 
otherwise  they  would  not  have  been  noticed  and  valued  as 
objects  of  food.  But  these  authors  apparently  have  not  con- 
sidered the  many  accounts  given  by  travellers  of  the  wretched 
food  collected  by  savages.  I  have  read  an  account  of  the 
savages  of  Australia  cooking,  during  a  dearth,  many  vegetables 
in  various  ways,  in  the  hopes  of  rendering  them  innocuous  and 
more  nutritious.  Dr.  Hooker  found  the  half-starved  in- 
habitants of  a  village  in  Sikhim  suifering  greatly  from 
having  eaten  arum-roots,^  which  they  had  pounded  and  left 
for  several  days  to  ferment,  so  as  partially  to  destroy  their 
poisonous  nature ;  and  he  adds  that  they  cooked  and  ate  many 

*  *  Considerations  sur  les  Cereales,'  des  espfeces  offrant  a  rorigme  mein« 

1342,  p.  o7.    '  Ge'ographie  Bot.,'  1855,  un  avantage  incontestable." 

p.  930.     "  Plus  on  suppose  I'agricul-  ^  Dr.   Hooker    has    given    me  this 

ture    ancienne    et   remontant    a   une  information.  Si?e,  also,  his  '  Himalayau 

^poque  d'ignorance,  plus  il  est  probable  Journals,'  1854,  vol.  ii.  p   49. 
que    le£    cultivateurs    avaieut    choisi 


Chap.  IX.  PRELIMINARY   REMARKS.  325 

other  deleterious  plants.  Sir  Andrew  Smith  informs  me  that 
in  South  Africa  a  large  number  of  fruits  and  succulent  leaves, 
and  especially  roots,  are  used  in  times  of  scarcity.  The 
natives,  indeed,  know  the  properties  of  a  long  catalogue  of 
plants,  some  having  been  found  during  famines  to  be  eatable, 
others  injurious  to  health,  or  even  destructive  to  life.  He 
met  a  party  of  Baquanas  who,  having  been  expelled  by  the 
conquering  Zulus,  had  lived  for  years  on  any  roots  or  leaves 
which  afforded  some  little  nutriment  and  distended  their 
stomachs,  so  as  to  relieve  the  pangs  of  hunger.  They  looked 
like  walking  skeletons,  and  suffered  fearfully  from  con- 
stipation. Sir  Andrew  Smith  also  informs  me  that  on  such 
occasions  the  natives  observe  as  a  guide  for  themselves,  what 
the  wild  animals,  especially  baboons  and  monkeys,  eat. 

From  innumerable  experiments  made  through  dire  ne- 
cessity by  the  savages  of  every  land,  with  the  results  handed 
down  by  tradition,  the  nutritious,  stimulating,  and  medicinal 
properties  of  the  most  unpromising  plants  were  probably 
first  discovered.  It  appears,  for  instance,  at  iirst  an  in- 
explicable fact  that  untutored  man,  in  three  distant  quarters 
of  the  world,  should  have  discovered,  amongst  a  host  of 
native  plants,  that  the  leaves  of  the  tea-plant  and  mattee, 
and  the  berries  of  the  coffee,  all  included  a  stimulating  and 
nutritious  essence,  now  known  to  be  chemically  the  same. 
We  can  also  see  that  savages  suffering  from  severe  con- 
stipation would  naturally  observe  whether  any  of  the  roots 
which  they  devoured  actfed  as  aperients.  We  probably  owe 
our  knowledge  of  the  uses  of  almost  all  plants  to  man 
having  originally  existed  in  a  barbarous  state,  and  having 
been  often  compelled  by  severe  want  to  try  as  food  almost 
everything  which  he  could  chew  and  swallow. 

From  what  we  know  of  the  habits  of  savages  in  many 
quarters  of  the  world,  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  our 
cereal  plants  originally  existed  in  their  present  state  so 
valuable  to  man.  Let  us  look  to  one  continent  alone,  namely, 
Africa :  Barth^  states  that  the  slaves  over  a  large  part  of  the 

^  'Travels  in  Central  Africa,' Eng.  ii.  pp.  29,  265,  270  Livingstone'e 
translat.  vol.  i.  pp.  529  and  390 ;  vol.        '  Travels,'  p.  551. 


326  CULTIVATED    PLANTS.  Chap.  IX. 

oentidl  region  regularly  collect  the  seeds  of  a  wild  grass,  the 
Pennisetum  disticlmm ;  in  another  district  he  saw  women 
collecting  the  seeds  of  a  Poa  by  swinging  a  sort  of  basket 
through  the  rich  meadow-land.  Near  Tete,  Livingstone 
observed  the  natives  collecting  the  seeds  of  a  wild  grass,  and 
farther  south,  as  Andersson  informs  me,  the  natives  largely 
use  the  seed  of  a  grass  of  about  the  size  of  canary-seed,  which 
they  boil  in  water.  They  eat  also  the  roots  of  certain  reeds, 
and  every  one  has  read  of  the  Bushmen  prowling .  about  and  *" 
digging  up  with  a  fire-hardened  stake  various  roots.  Similar 
facts  with  respect  to  the  collection  of  seeds  of  wild  grasses  in 
other  parts  of  the  world  could  be  given. "^ 

Accustomed  as  we  are  to  our  excellent  vegetables  and 
luscious  fruits,  we  can  hardly  persuade  ourselves  that  the 
stringy  roots  of  the  wild  carrot  and  parsnip,  or  the  little 
shoots  of  the  wild  asparagus,  or  crabs,  sloes,  &c.,  should  ever 
have  been  valued ;  yet,  from  what  we  know  of  the  habits  of 
Australian  and  South  African  savages,  we  need  feel  no  doubt 
on  this  head.  The  inhabitants  of  Switzerland  during  the 
Stone  period  largely  collected  wild  crabs,  sloes,  bullaces,  hijDs 
of  roses,  elderberries,  beechmast,  and  other  wild  berries  and 
fruit. '^  Jemmy  Button,  a  Fuegian  on  board  the  Beagle, 
remarked  to  me  that  the  poor  and  acid  black-currants  of 
Tierra  del  Fuego  were  too  sweet  for  his  taste. 

The  savage  inhabitants  of  each  land,  having  found  out  by 
many  and  hard  trials  what  plants  were  useful,  or  could  be 
rendered  useful  by  various  cooking  processes,  would  after  a 
time  take  the  first  step  in  cultivation  by  planting  them  near 
their  usual  abodes.  Livingstone^  states  that  the  savage 
Batokas  sometimes  left  wild  fruit-trees  standing  in  their 
gardens,    and  occasionally  even  planted  them,    "  a  practice 

^  For  instance,  in  both   North  and  ing  to  distinct  families. 
South     America.        Mr.     Edgeworth  *  Prof.  0.  Heor,  '  Die  Pflanzen  der 

('Journal  Proc.   Linn.   Sec.,'  vol    vi.  Ffahlbauten,  1866,  aus  dem  Neujahr. 

Bot.,  1862,  p.  181)  states  that  in  the  Naturforsch.  Gesellschaft,'  1866;  and 

deserts  of  the    Punjab    poor    women  Dr.   H.   Christ,   in    Riitimeyer's    '  Die 

sweep   up,   "by  a  whisk  into  straw  Fauna  der  Pfahlbauten,'  1861,  s.  226. 
baskets,"  the  seeds  of  four  genera  of  ®  '  Travels,'   p.   585.    Du    Chaillu, 

grasses,  namely,  of  Agrostis,  Panicum,  'Adventures   in     Equatorial   Africa,' 

Cenchrus,  and  Pennisetum,  as  well  as  1861,  p.  445. 
the  seeds  of  four  other  genera  belong- 


Chap.  IX.  PRELIMINARY   REMARKS.  327 

seen  nowhero  else  amongst  tlie  natives."  But  Du  Cliaillu 
saw  a  pialm  and  some  other  wild  fruit-trees  which  had  been 
planted;  and  these  trees  were  considered  private  propert3^ 
The  next  step  in  cultivation,  and  this  would  require  but  little 
forethought,  would  be  to  sow  the  seeds  of  useful  plants ; 
and  as  the  feoil  near  the  hovels  of  the  natives  ^°  would  often  1)8 
in  some  degree  manured,  improved  varieties  would  sooner  or 
later  arise.  Or  a  wild  and  unusually  good  variety  of  a  native 
plant  might  attract  the  attention  of  some  wise  old  savage ; 
and  he  would  transplant  it,  or  sow  its  seed.  That  superior 
varieties  of  wild  fruit-trees  occasionally  are  found  is  certain, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  American  species  of  hawthorns,  plums, 
cherries,  grapes,  and  hickories,  specified  by  Professor  Asa 
Gray.^^^  Downing  also  refers  to  certain  wild  varieties  of  the 
hickory,  as  being  "  of  much  larger  size  and  finer  flavour  than 
the  common  species."  I  have  referred  to  American  fruit-trees, 
because  we  are  not  in  this  case  troubled  with  doubts  whether 
or  not  the  varieties  are  seedlings  which  have  escaped  from 
cultivation.  Transplanting  any  superior  variety,  or  sowing 
its  seeds,  hardly  implies  more  forethought  than  might  be 
expected  at  an  early  and  rude  period  of  civilisation.  Even 
the  Australian  barbarians  "  have  a  law  that  no  plant  bearing 
seeds  is  to  be  dug  up  after  it  has  flowered ;"  and  Sir  G.  Grey^^ 
never  saw  this  law,  evidently  framed  for  the  preservation  ot 
the  plant,  violated.  We  see  the  same  spirit  in  the  super- 
stitious belief  of  the  Euegians,  that  killing  water-fowl  whilst 
very  young  will  be  followed  by  "  much  rain,  snow,  blow 
much."  ^^  I  may  add,  as  showing  forethought  in  the  lowest 
barbarians,  that  the  Fuegians  when  they  find  a  stranded 
whale  bury  large  portions  in  the  sand,  and  during  the  often- 
recurrent  famines  travel  from  great  distances  for  the  remnants 
of  the  half-putrid  mass. 

It  has  often  been  remarked  ^*  that  we  do  not  owe  a  single 

'»  In    Tierra   del    Fuego    the    spot  1845,  p.  261. 

wiiere  wigwams  had  formerly  stood  ^^  '  Journals  of  Expeditions  in  Aus- 

could    be    distinguished    at    a    great  tralia,'  1841,  vol,  ii.  p.  292. 

distance  by  the  bright  green  tint  of  *^  Darwin's  '  Journal  of  Researches.' 

the  native  vegetation.  1845,  p.  215. 

"  'American    Acad,    of   Arts    and  *■*  De    Candolle  has  tabulated  the 

Sciences,'  April   10th,    1860,  p.  413,  facts  in  the  most  interesting  manner 

Downing,   'The    Fruits    of  America/  in  his  '  Ge'ograpb;e  Bot.,'  p.  986 


328  CULTIVATED    PLANTS.  Chap.  IX. 

useful  plant  to  Australia  or  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, — countries 
abounding  to  an  unparalleled  degree  with  endemic  species, — • 
or  to  New  Zealand,  or  to  America  south  of  the  Plata ;  and., 
according  to  some  authors,  not  to  America  northward  of 
Mexico.  I  do  not  believe  that  any  edible  or  valuable  plant, 
except  the  canar}^  grass,  has  been  derived  from  an  oceanic  or 
uninhabited  island.  If  nearly  all  our  useful  plants,  natives 
of  Europe,  Asia,  and  South  America,  had  originally  existed 
in  their  present  condition,  the  complete  absence  of  similarly 
useful  plants  in  the  great  countries  just  named  would  be  indeed 
a  surprising  fact.  But  if  these  plants  have  been  so  greatl}'' 
modified  and  improved  by  culture  as  no  longer  closely  to 
resemble  any  natural  species,  we  can  understand  why  the 
above-named  countries  have  given  us  no  useful  plants,  for 
they  were  either  inhabited  by  men  who  did  not  cultivate  the 
ground  at  all,  as  in  Australia  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  or 
who  cultivated  it  very  imperfectly,  as  in  some  parts  of 
America.  These  countries  do  yield  plants  which  are  useful 
to  savage  man ;  and  Dr.  Hooker  ^^  enumerates  no  less  than 
107  such  species  in  Australia  alone;  but  these  plants  have 
not  been  improved,  and  consequently  cannot  comiDcte  with 
those  which  have  been  cultivated  and  improved  during 
thousands  of  years  in  the  civilised  world. 

The  case  of  New  Zealand,  to  which  fine  island  we  as  yet 
owe  no  widely  cultivated  plant,  may  seem  opposed  to  this 
view;  for,  when  first  discovered,  the  natives  cultivated 
several  plants  ;  but  all  inquirers  believe,  in  accordance  with 
the  traditions  of  the  natives,  that  the  early  Polynesian 
colonists  brought  with  them  seeds  and  roots,  as  well  as  the 
dog,  which  had  been  wisely  preserved  during  their  long 
vo3^age.  The  Polynesians  are  so  frequently  lost  on  the  ocean 
that  this  degree  of  prudence  would  occur  to  any  wandering 
party :  hence  the  early  colonists  of  New  Zealand,  like  the 
later  European  colonists,  would  not  have  had  any  strong 
inducement  to  cultivate  the  aboriginal  plants.  According  to 
De  CandoUe  we  owe  thirty-three  useful  plants  to  Mexico, 
Peru,  and  Chile;  nor  is  this  surprising  when  we  remember 
the  civilized  state  of  the  inhabitants,  as  shown  by  the  fact  of 

"  'Floraof  Australia,' Introduction,  p.  ci:. 


Chap.  IX.  PEELIMINARY   REMARKS.  829 

• 
their  having  practised  artificial  irrigation  and  made  tunnels 

through  hard  rocks  without  the  use  of  iron  or  gunpowder, 

and  who,  as  we  shall  see  in  a  future  chapter,  fully  recognised, 

as  far  as  animals  were  concerned,  and  therefore  probably  in 

the  case  of  plants,  the  important  principle  of  selection.     \\e 

owe  some  plants  to  Brazil ;  and  the  early  voyagers,  namely, 

Vespucius  and  Cabral,  describe  the  country  as  thickly  peopled 

and  cultivated.     In  Korth  America^''  the  natives  cultivated 

maize,  pumpkins,  gourds,  beans,  and  peas,  "  all  different  from 

ours,"  and  tobacco  ;  and  we  are  hardly  justified  in  assuming 

that  none   of  our  present   plants  are  descended  from  these 

North  American  forms.     Had  North  America  been  civilized 

for  as  long  a  period,  and  as  thickly  peopled,  as  Asia  or  Europe, 

it  is  probable  that  the   native  vines,   walnuts,   mulberries, 

crabs,  and  plums,  would  have  given  rise,  after  a  long  course 

of  cultivation,  to  a  multitude  of  vaiieties,  some  extremely 

different   from   their   parent-stocks ;    and   escaped   seedlings 

would  have  caused  in  the  New,  as  in  the  Old  World,  much 

perplexity   with   respect   to   their   specifi.c   distinctness   and 

parentage.  ^'^ 

Cereal/a. — I  will  now  enter  on  details.  The  cereals  cultivated  in 
Europe  consist  of  four  genera — wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  oats.  Of 
wheat  the  best  modern  authorities  ^^  make  four  or  five,  or  even 
seven  distinct  species;  of  rye,  one;  of  barley,  three;  and  of  oats, 
two,  three,  or  four  species.  So  that  altogether  our  cereals  are 
ranked  by  different  authors  under  from  ten  to  fifteen  distinct 
species.  These  have  given  rise  to  a  multitude  of  varieties.  It  is 
a  remarkable  fact  that  botanists  are  not  universally  agreed  on  the 
aboriginal  parent-form  of  any  one  cereal  plant.     For  instance,  a 


*^  For    Canada,     see    J.     Cavtier's  *^  See,  for  example,  Mr.  Hewett  C. 

Voyage    in    1534;    for    Florida,    see  Watsou's  remarks  on  our  wild  plums 

Narvaez    and     Ferdinand    de     Soto's  and     cherries     and     crabs :     '  Cybele 

Voyages.     As  I  have  consulted  these  Britannica,'  vol.   i.  pp.  330,  334,  kc. 

and  other  old  Voyages  in  more   than  Van  Mons  (in  his  '  Arbres  Fruitiers,' 

one  general   collection  of  Voyages,  I  1835,  tom.  i.  p.  444)  declares  that  he 

do  not  give  precise   references  to  the  has  found  the  types  of  all  our  culti- 

pagi.'s.  See  also,  for  several  references,  vated  varieties  in  wild  seedlings,  but 

Asa  Gray,  in  the  '  American  Journal  then  he  looks  on  these  seedlings  as  so 

of  Science,'  vol.   xxiv.   Kov.    1857,  p.  many  aboriginal  stocks. 

441.    For  the  traditions  of  the  natives  ^*  See  A.  De  Candolle,  '  Geogriph. 

of    New     Zealand,     see     Crawfurd's  Bot.,'   1855,   p.  928  et  seq.     Godroi  . 

'Grammar  and  Diet,    of  the    Malay  '  De  i'Espece,' 1859,  tom.  ii.  p.  70;  and 

Language,'  1852,  p.  cclx.  Metzger, 'Die Getreidearten,'&c.,  1841. 


330  CEREAL   PLANTS.  Chap.  IK. 

high  authority  writes  in  1855,"  "  We  ourselves  have  no  hesitation 
in  stating  our  conviction,  as  the  result  of  all  the  most  reliable 
evidence,  that  none  of  these  Cerealia  exist,  or  have  existed,  truly 
wild  in  their  present  state^  but  that  all  are  cultivated  varieties 
of  species  now  growing  in  great  abundance  in  S.  Europe  or  W.  Asia." 
On  the  other  hand,  Alph.  De  Candolle^"  has  adduced  abundant 
evidence  that  common  wheat  {Tnticum  vulgare)  has  been  found 
wild  in  various  parts  of  Asia,  where  it  is  not  likely  to  have  escaped 
from  cultivation :  and  there  is  some  force  in  M.  Godron's  remark, 
that,  supposing  these  plants  to  be  escaped  seedlings,^^  as  they  have 
I)ropagated  themselves  in  a  wild  state  for  several  generations,  their 
continued  resemblance  to  cultivated  wheat  renders  it  probable  that 
the  latter  has  retained  its  aboriginal  character.  But  the  strong 
tendency  to  inheritance,  which  most  of  the  varieties  of  wheat  evince, 
as  we  shall  presently  see,  is  here  greatly  undervalued.  Much 
weight  must  also  be  attributed  to  a  remark  by  Professor  Hilde- 
brand, '^  that  when  the  seeds  or  fruit  of  cultivated  plants  possess 
qualities  disadvantageous  to  them  as  a  means  of  distribution,  we  may 
feel  almost  sure  that  they  no  longer  retain  their  aboriginal  condition. 
On  the  other  hand,  M.  i)e  Candolle  insists  strongly  on  the  frequent 
occurrence  in  the  Austrian  dominions  of  rye  and  of  one  kind  of  oats 
in  an  apparently  wild  condition.  With  the  exception  of  these  two 
cases,  which  however  are  rather  doubtful,  and  with  the  exception  of 
two  forms  of  wheat  and  one  of  barley,  which  he  believes  to  have  been 
found  truly  wild,  M.  De  Candolle  does  not  seem  fully  satisfied  with 
the  other  reported  discoveries  of  the  parent-forms  of  our  other 
cereals.  With  respect  to  oats,  according  to  Mr.  Buckmann,^^  the 
wild  English  Avena  fatua  can  be  converted  by  a  few  years  of  careful 
cultivation  and  selection  into  forms  almost  identical  with  two  very 
distinct  cultivated  races.  The  whole  subject  of  the  origin  and 
specific  distinctness  of  the  various  cereal  plants  is  a  most  difficult 
one ;  but  we  shall  perhaps  be  able  to  judge  a  little  better  after  con- 
sidering the  amount  of  variation  which  wheat  has  undergone. 
Metzger  describes  seven  species  of  wheat,  G-odron  refers  to  five, 


*^  Mr.    Bentham,   in    his   review,  (torn.  i.  p.  165)  has  shown  by  careful 

entitled  '  Hist.   Notes   on  cultivated  experiments  that  the  first  step  in  the 

Plants,'  by  Dr.   A.   Targioni-Tozzetti,  series,    viz,   ^gilops   triticoides,  is    a 

in  '  Journal    of  Hort.  Soc.,'  vol.   ix.  hybrid  between  wheat  and  jE.  ovata. 

(1855),  p.  133.     He  informs  me  that  The     frequency    with     which     these 

he  still  retains  the  same  opinion.  hybrids   spontaneously  arise,  and  the 

-"  *  Ge'ograph.   Bot.,'  p.   928.     The  gradual    manner    in    which    the    J^. 

whole  subject  is  discussed  with  admir-  triticoidesh&comQs  converted  into  true 

able  fulness  and  knowledge.  wheat,    alone  leave    any  doubt  with 

2^  Godron,  '  De  I'Espece,'  tom.  ii.  p.  respect  to  M.  Godron's  conclusions. 
72.     A  few   years  ago  the   excellent,  -^    '  Die     Verbreitungsmittel     det 

though    misintei'preted,    observations  Pflanzen,  1873,  p.  129. 
of    M.    Fabre   led    many    persons    to  ^^  Report  to  British  AssociatLou  foi 

believe  that    wheat    was    a    modified  1857,  p,  207. 
desceudant  of  iEgiiops  J  but  M.  Godron 


Chap.  IX.  WHEAT.  331 

aud  De  Candolle  to  only  four.  It  is  not  improbable  tbat,  besides 
the  kinds  known  in  Europe,  other  strongly  characterised  forms  exist 
in  the  more  distant  parts  of  the  world ;  for  Loiseleur-Deslong- 
champs  ^^  speaks  of  three  new  species  or  yarieties,  sent  to  Eui  ope 
in  1822  from  Chinese  Mongolia,  which  he  considers  as  being  there 
indigenous.  Moorcroft  ^^  also  speaks  of  Hasora  wheat  in  Ladakh 
as  very  peculiar.  If  those  botanists  are  right  who  believe  that  at 
least  seven  species  of  wheat  originally  existed,  then  the  amount 
of  variation  in  any  important  character  which  wheat  has  undergone 
under  cultivation  has  been  slight ;  but  if  only  four  or  a  lesser 
number  of  species  originally  existed,  then  it  is  evident  that  varieties 
have  arisen  so  strongly  marked,  that  they  have  been  considered  by 
capable  judges  as  specifically  distinct.  But  the  impossibility  of 
deciding  which  forms  ought  to  be  ranked  as  species  and  which  as 
varieties,  makes  it  useless  to  specify  in  detail  the  differences  between 
the  various  kinds  of  wheat.  Speaking  generally,  the  organs  of 
vegetation  differ  little  f^  but  some  kinds  grow  close  and  upright, 
whilst  others  spread  and  trail  along  the  ground.  The  straw  differs 
in  being  more  or  less  hollow,  and  in  quality.  The  ears  ^^  differ  in 
colour  and  in  shape,  being  quadrangular,  compressed,  or  nearly 
cylindrical ;  and  the  florets  differ  in  their  approximation  to  each 
other,  in  their  pubescence,  and  in  being  more  or  less  elongated. 
The  presence  or  absence  of  barbs  is  a  conspicuous  difference,  and  in 
certain  Graminese  serves  even  as  a  generic  character ;  ^^  although, 
as  remarked  by  G-odi'on,^^  the  presence  of  barbs  is  variable  in  certain 
wild  grasses,  and  especially  in  those  such  as  Bromus  secalinus  and 
Lolium  temuhntum,  which  habitually  grow  mingled  with  our  cereal 
crops,  and  which  have  thus  unintentionally  been  exposed  to  culture. 
The  grains  differ  in  size,  weight,  and  colour ;  in  being  more  or  less 
downy  at  one  end,  in  being  smooth  or  wrinkled,  in  being  either 
nearly  globular,  oval,  or  elongated;  and  finally  in  internal  texture, 
being  tender  or  hard,  or  even  almost  horny,  and  in  the  proportion 
of  gluten  which  they  contain. 

Nearly  all  the  races  or  species  of  wheat  vary,  as  Godron^  has 
remarked,  in  an  exactly  parallel  manner, — in  the  seed  being  downy 
or  glabrous,  and  in  colour, — and  in  the  florets  being  barbed  or 
not  barbed,  &c.  Those  who  believe  that  all  the  kinds  are  descended 
from  a  single  wild  species  may  account  for  this  parallel  variation 
by  the  inheritance  of  a  similar  constitution,  and  a  consequent 
tendency  to  vary  in  the  same  manner ;  and  those  who  believe 
in  the  general  theory  of  descent  with  modification  may  extend  this 


2*  *  Considerations  sur  les  Cereales,'  sid.  eur  les  Cereales,'  p.  11. 
1842-43,  p.  29.  ^^  See    an     excellent     review     in 

25  <  Travels  in  the  Himalayan  Pro-  Hooker's  'Journ.  of  Botany,' vol.  viii 

vinces,'  &c.,  1841,  vol.  i.  p.  224.  p.  82,  note 

28  Col.    J.     Le    Couteur     on     the  29  a  x)q  I'Espfece,   torn.  ii.  p.  73. 

'  Varieties  of  Wheat,'  pp.  23,  79.  so  Ibid.,  torn.  ii.  p.  75. 

*''  Loiseleur-Deslongchamps,  *Con- 


332  CEREAL  PLANTS.  Chap.  IX. 

view  to  the  several  species  of  wheat,  if  sucli  ever  existed  in  a  state 
of  nature. 

Although  few  of  the  varieties  of  wheat  present  any  conspicuous 
dilference,  their  number  is  great.  Dalbret  cultivated  during  thirty 
years  from  150  to  160  kinds,  and  excepting  in  the  quality  of  the 
grain  they  all  kept  true;  Colonel  Le  Couteur  possessed  upwards  of 
150,  and  Philippar  322  varieties.^^  As  wheat  is  an  annual,  we  thus 
see  how  strictly  many  trifling  diiferences  in  character  are  inherited 
through  many  generations.  Colonel  Lo  Couteur  insists  strongly  on 
this  same  fact.  In  his  persevering  and  successful  attempts  to  raise 
new  varieties,  he  found  that  there  was  only  one  "  secure  mode  to 
"  ensure  the  growth  of  pure  sorts,  namely,  to  grow  them  from  single 
"  grains  or  from  single  ears,  and  to  follow  up  the  plan  by  afterwards 
*•  sowing  only  the  produce  of  the  most  productive  so  as  to  form  a 
"  stock."  But  Major  Hallett^^  j^as  gone  much  farther,  and  by  the 
continued  selection  of  plants  from  the  grains  of  the  same  ear, 
during  successive  gcDerations,  has  made  his  '  Pedigree  in  Wheat ' 
(and  other  cereals)  now  famous  in  many  quarters  of  the  world. 
The  great  amount  of  variability  in  the  plants  of  the  same 
variety  is  another  interesting  point,  which  would  never  have 
been  detected  except  by  an  eye  long  practised  to  the  work; 
thus  Colonel  Le  Couteur  relates  ^^  that  in  a  field  of  his  own 
wheat,  which  he  considered  at  least  as  pure  as  that  of  any  of  his 
neighbours,  Professor  La  Gasca  found  twenty-three  sorts;  and 
Professor  Henslow  has  observed  similar  facts.  Besides  such  in- 
dividual variations,  forms  sufficiently  well  marked  to  be  valued  and 
to  become  widely  cultivated  sometimes  suddenly  appear:  thus 
Mr.  Shirrelf  has  had  the  good  fortune  to  raise  in  his  lifetime  seven 
new  varieties,  which  are  now  extensively  grown  in  many  parts  of 
Britain.^^ 

As  in  the  case  of  many  other  plants,  some  varieties,  both  old  and 
new,  are  far  more  constant  in  character  than  others.  Colonel  Le 
Couteur  was  forced  to  reject  some  of  his  new  sub-varieties,  which 
he  suspected  had  been  produced  from  a  cross,  as  incorrigibly 
sportive.  On  the  other  hand  Major  Hallett  ^^  has  shown  how  wo > i der- 
fully  constant  some  varieties  are,  although  not  ancient  ones,  and  al- 
though cultivated  in  various  countries.  With  respect  to  the  tendency 
to  vary,  Metzger  ^^  gives  from  his  own  experience  some  interesting 
facts :  he  describes  three  Spanish  sub-varieties,  more  especially  one 


^^  For  Dalbret  and  Philippar,  see  Economy  of  Yorkshire,'  vol.  ii.  p.  9, 

Loiselenr-Dealongchamps, '  Consid.  sur  remarks   that  "  in  every  field  of  corn 

lijs  Cerir.lis,'  pp.  45,  70.     Le  Couteur  there  is  as  much  variety  as  iu  a  herd 

on  Wheat,  pp.  6,  14-17.  of  cattle." 

32  See   his  Essay   on  '  Pedigree   in  ^^  '  Gardener's  Chron.'  and   *  Agri- 
Wheat,'  1862  ;  also  paper  read  before  culc.  Gazette,'  1862,  p.  963. 

the    British    Association,     1869,  and  ^^  'Gardener's   Chron.'  Nov.  1868,. 

other  publications.  p.  1199. 

33  »  Varieties  of  Wheat,'  Introduc-  ^6  '  Getreidearten,'  1841^  s.  Gfi,  91 
lion,  p.   vi.  Marshall,  in  his  'Rural  92,  116,  117. 


Chap.  IX.  WHEAT.  333 

known  to  be  constant  in  Spain,  whicli  m  Germany  assunind  their 
})roper  character  only  during  hot  summers ;  another  variety  kept 
true  only  in  good  land,  but  after  having  been  cultivated  for  twenty- 
five  years  became  more  constant.  He  mentions  two  other  sub- 
varieties  which  were  at  first  inconstant,  but  subsequently  became, 
apparently  without  any  selection,  accustomed  to  their  new  homes, 
and  retained  their  proper  character.  These  facts  show  what  small 
changes  in  the  conditions  of  life  cause  variability,  and  they  further 
show  that  a  variety  may  become  habituated  to  new  conditions. 
One  is  at  first  inclined  to  conclude  with  Loiseleur-Deslongchamps, 
that  wheat  cultivated  in  the  same  country  is  exposed  to  remarkably 
uniform  conditions;  but  manures  differ,  seed  is  taken  from  one 
soil  to  another,  and,  what  is  far  more  important;,  the  plants  are 
exposed  as  little  as  possible  to  struggle  with  other  plants,  and  are 
thus  enabled  to  exist  under  diversified  conditions.  In  a  state  of 
nature  each  plant  is  confined  to  that  particular  station  and  kind 
of  nutriment  which  it  can  seize  from  the  other  plants  by  which  it 
is  surrounded. 

Wheat  quickly  assumes  new  habits  of  life.  The  summer  and 
winter  kinds  were  classed  by  Linnaeus  as  distinct  species ;  but 
M.  Monnier  ^'^  has  proved  that  the  difference  between  them  is  only 
temporary.  He  sowed  winter-wheat  in  spring,  and  out  of  one 
hundred  plants  four  alone  produced  ripe  seeds ;  these  were  sown 
and  resown,  and  in  three  years  plants  were  reared  which  ripened 
all  their  seed.  Conversely,  nearly  all  the  plants  raised  from 
summer- wheat,  which  was  sown  in  autumn,  perished  from  frost ; 
but  a  few  were  saved  and  produced  seed,  and  in  three  years  this 
summer- variety  was  converted  into  a  winter- variety.  Hence  it  is  not 
surprising  that  wheat  soon  becomes  to  a  certain  extent  acclimatised, 
and  that  seed  brought  from  distant  countries  and  sown  in  Europe 
vegetates  at  first,  or  even  for  a  considerable  period,^^  differently 
from  our  European  varieties.  In  Canada  the  first  settlers,  accord- 
ing to  Kalm,^^  found  their  winters  too  severe  for  winter-wheat 
brought  from  France,  and  their  summers  often  too  short  for  sum- 
mer-wheat ;  and  they  thought  that  their  country  was  useless  for 
corn  crops  until  they  procured  summer- wheat  from  the  northern 
parts  of  Europe,  which  succeeded  well.  It  is  notorious  that  the 
proportion  of  gluten  differs  much  under  different  climates.  The 
weight  of  the  grain  is  also  quickly  affected  by  climate :  Loiseleur- 
Deslongchamps  ■*"  sowed  near  Paris  54  varieties,  obtained  from  the 
South  of  France  and  from  the  Black  Sea,  and  52  of  these  yielded 
seed  from  10  to  40  per  cent,  heavier  than  the  parent-seed.     He  then 


''  Quoted  by  Godron, '  De  I'Espfece,'  70.      Many  other  acouuts  could  be 

vol.  ii.  p.  74.     So  it  is,  according  to  added. 

Metzger  ('Getreidearten,' s.  18),  with  ^^  'Travels    in    North     America,* 

summer  and  winter  barley.  1753-1761,  Eng.  translat.,  vol.  iii.  p. 

■*"  Loiseleur-Deslongchamps,  '  Cere-  165. 
ales,'  part  ii.  p.  224.     Le  Couteur,  p.  "  'Cereales,*  part  ii.  pp.  170-183. 


334  CEREAL  PLANTS.  Chap.  TX. 

eeut  these  heavier  grains  back  to  the  Sontli  of  France,  but  there 
they  immediately  yielded  lighter  seed. 

All  those  who  have  closely  attended  to  the  subject  insist  on  the 
close  adaptation  of  numerous  varieties  of  wheat  to  various  soils  and 
climates  even  within  the  same  country  ;  thus  Colonel  Le  Couteur'^^ 
says,  "It  is  the  suitableness  of  each  sort  to  each  soil  that  will 
enable  the  farmer  to  pay  his  rent  by  sowing  one  variety,  where  he 
would  be  unable  to  do  so  by  attemiDting  to  grow  another  of  a 
seemingly  better  sort."  This  may  be  in  part  due  to  each  kind 
becoming  habituated  to  its  conditions  of  life,  as  Metzger  has  shown 
certainly  occurs,  but  it  is  probably  in  main  part  due  to  innate 
differences  between  the  several  varieties. 

Much  has  been  written  on  the  deterioration  of  wheat;  that  the 
quality  of  the  flour,  size  of  grain,  time  of  flowering,  and  hardness, 
may  be  modified  by  climate  and  soil,  seems  nearly  certain;  but 
that  the  whole  body  of  any  one  sub-variety  ever  becomes  changed 
into  another  and  distinct  sub- variety,  there  is  no  reason  to  believe. 
What  apparently  does  take  place,  according  to  Le  Gouteur,^^  is,  that 
some  one  sub-variety  out  of  the  many  which  may  always  be  detected 
in  the  same  field  is  more  prolific  than  the  others,  and  gradually 
supplants  the  variety  which  was  first  sown. 

With  respect  to  the  natural  crossing  of  distinct  varieties  the 
evidence  is  conflicting,  but  preponderates  against  its  frequent  occur- 
rence. Many  authors  maintain  that  impregnation  takes  place  in 
the  closed  flower,  but  I  am  sure  from  my  own  observation  that  this 
is  not  the  case,  at  least  with  those  varieties  to  which  I  have  attended. 
But  as  I  shall  have  to  discuss  this  subject  in  another  work,  it  may 
be  here  passed  over. 

In  conclusion,  all  authors  admit  that  numerous  varieties  of 
wheat  have  arisen ;  but  their  differences  are  unimportant, 
unless,  indeed,  some  of  the  so-called  species  are  ranked  as 
varieties.  Those  who  believe  that  from  four  to  seven  wild 
species  of  Triticum  originally  existed  in  nearly  the  same  con- 
dition as  at  present,  rest  their  belief  chiefly  on  the  great 
antiquity  of  the  several  forms.*^  It  is  an  important  fact, 
which  we  have  recently  learnt  from  the  admirable  researches 
of  Heer,"^^  that  the  inhabitants  of  Switzerland,  even  so  early 

*^  '  On    the    Varieties    of    Wheat,*  rity  cannot  be  given  ('  Gard.   Chron. 

Introduct.,    p.     vii.      See     Marshall,  and    Agricult.     Gazette,'     1862,     p. 

'  Rural  Econ.  of  Yorkshire,'  vol.  ii.  p.  963),  says,  "  I  have  never  seen  grain 

9.     With  I'espect  to  similar  cases  of  "which   has  either  been    improved   or 

adaptation  in  the  varieties  of  oats,  see  degenerated   by   cultivation,  so  as  to 

some  interesting  papers  in  the  '  Gar-  convey  the  change  to  the   succeeding 

dm  ar's  Chron.  and  Agricult.  Gazette,'  crop. 

18c.O,  pp.  204,  219.  ''3  Alph.  De  Candolle,  'Geograph. 

*•  'On  the  Varieties  of  Wheat,'  p.  Bet.,'  p.  930. 

59.    Mr.  Shirrefi,  and  a  higher  autho-  ■»* '  V  danzen  der  Pfahlbauttn, '  1860, 


Chap.  IX.  WHEAT.  335 

as  the  Neolithic  period,  cultivated  no  less  than  ten  cereal 
plants,  namely,  five  kinds  of  wheat,  of  which  at  least  four  are 
commonly  looked  at  as  distinct  species,  three  kinds  of  barle}^ 
a  panicum,  and  a  setaria.  If  it  could  be  shown  that  at  the 
earliest  dawn  of  agriculture  five  kinds  of  wheat  and  three  of 
barley  had  been  cultivated,  we  should  of  course  be  compelled 
to  look  at  these  forms  as  distinct  species.  But,  as  Heer  has 
remarked,  agriculture  even  at  the  Neolithic  period,  had  already 
made  considerable  progress  ;  for,  besides  the  cereals,  peas, 
poppies,  flax,  and  apparently  apples,  were  cultivated.  It  may 
also  be  inferred,  from  one  variety  of  wheat  being  the  so  called 
Egyptian,  and  from  what  is  known  of  the  native  country  of 
the  panicum  and  setaria,  as  well  as  from  the  nature  of  the 
weeds  which  then  grew  mingled  with  the  crops,  that  the  lake- 
inhabitants  either  still  kept  up  commercial  intercourse  with 
some  southern  people  or  had  originally  proceeded  as  colonists 
from  the  South. 

Loiseleur-Deslongchamps  *^  has  argued  that,  if  our  cereal 
plants  have  been  greatly  modified  by  cultivation,  the  weeds 
which  habitually  grow  mingled  with  them  would  have  been 
equally  modified.  But  this  argument  shows  how  completely 
the  principle  of  selection  has  been  overlooked.  That  such 
weeds  have  not  varied,  or  at  least  do  not  vary  now  in  any 
extreme  degree,  is  the  opinion  of  Mr.  H.  C.  Watson  and 
Professor  Asa  Gray,  as  they  inform  me ;  but  who  will  pretend 
to  say  that  they  do  not  vary  as  much  as  the  individual  plants 
of  the  same  sub-variety  of  wheat?  We  have  already  seen 
that  pure  varieties  of  wheat,  cultivated  in  the  same  field,  ofier 
many  slight  variations,  which  can  be  selected  and  separately 
propagated ;  and  that  occasionally  more  strongly  pi'onounced 
variations  appear,  which,  as  Mr.  Shirreff  has  proved,  are  well 
worthy  of  extensive  cultivation.  Not  until  equal  attention 
be  paid  to  the  variability  and  selection  of  weeds,  can  the 
argument  from  their  coiistancy  under  unintentional  culture 
be  of  any  value.  In  accordance  with  tlie  principles  of 
selection  we  can  understand  how  it  is  that  in  the  several  cul- 
tivated varieties  of  wheat  the  organs  of  vegetation  differ  so 
little ;  for  if  a  plant  with  peculiar  leaves  appeared,  it  would 

"  '  Les  Cereales,'  p.  9i. 


336  CEREAL  PLANTS.  Chap.  IX. 

be  neglected  unltss  tlie  grains  of  corn  were  at  tlie  same  time 
superior  in  quality  or  size.  The  selection  of  seed-corn  was 
strongly  recommended  ^^  in  ancient  times  by  Columella  and 
Celsus ;  and  as  Virgil  says, — 

"  I've  seen  the  largest  seeds,  tho'  view'd  with  care, 
Degenerate,  unless  th'  industrious  hand 
Did  yearly  cull  the  largest." 

But  whether  in  ancient  times  selection  was  methodically 
pursued  we  may  well  doubt,  when  we  hear  how  laborious  the 
work  has  been  found  by  Le  Couteur  and  Hallett.  Although 
the  principle  of  selection  is  so  important,  yet  the  little  which 
man  has  effected,  by  incessant  efforts  *^  during  thousands  of 
years,  in  rendering  the  plants  more  productive  or  the  grains 
more  nutritious  than  they  were  in  the  time  of  the  old  Egypt- 
ians, would  seem  to  speak  strongly  against  its  efficacy.  But 
we  must  not  forget  that  at  each  successive  period  the  state  of 
agriculture  and  the  quantity  of  manure  supplied  to  the  land 
will  have  determined  the  maximum  degree  of  productiveness  ; 
for  it  would  be  impossible  to  cultivate  a  highly  productive 
varietj^  unless  the  land  contained  a  sufficient  supply  of  the 
necessary  chemical  elements. 

We  now  know  that  man  was  sufficiently  civilized  to  culti- 
vate the  ground  at  an  immensely  remote  period;  so  that 
wheat  might  have  been  improved  long  ago  up  to  that  standard 
of  excellence  which  was  possible  under  the  then  existing  state 
of  agriculture.  One  small  class  of  facts  supports  this  view  of 
the  slow  and  gradual  improvement  of  bur  cereals.  In  the 
most  ancient  lake-habitations  of  Switzerland,  when  men 
employed  only  flint-tools,  the  most  extensively  cultivated 
wheat  was  a  peculiar  kind,  with  remarkably  small  ears  and 
o-rains.'^^  "  Whilst  the  2:rains  of  the  modern  forms  are  in 
section  from  seven  to  eight  millimetres  in  length,  the  larger 
grains  from  the  lake  habitations  are  six,  seldom  seven,  and 
the  smaller  ones  only  four.     The  ear  is  thus  much  narrower, 

^«  Quoted  by  Le  Couteur,  p.  !6.  bauten, '  18,66.    The  fc [lowing  passage 

*^  A.  De  CandoUe, '  GeograpK  Bot.,'  is  quoted    from    Dr.   Christ,   in  '  Dip 

p  932,  Fauna  dor  Pfahlbauten,  von  Dr.  Riiti 

^^  6.  Heer, '  Die  P^anzen  der  Pfahl-  meyer,'  186 1,  s.  225. 


Chap.  IX.  WHEAT.  33 Y 

Biid  the  spikelets  stand  out  more  horizontally,  than  in  our 
present  forms."  So  again  with  barley,  the  most  ancient  and 
most  extensively  cultivated  kind  had  small  ears,  and  the 
grains  were  "  smaller,  shorter,  and  nearer  to  each  other,  than 
in  that  now  grown  ;  without  the  husk  they  were  2^  lines  long, 
and  scarcely  1^  broad,  whilst  those  now  grown  have  a  length 
of  three  lines,  and  almost  the  same  in  breadth."  ^^  These 
small-grained  varieties  of  wheat  and  barley  are  believed  by 
Heer  to  be  the  parent-forms  of  certain  existing  allied  varieties, 
which  have  supplanted  their  early  progenitors. 

Heer  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  first  apj^earance 
and  final  disappearance  of  the  several  plants  which  were 
cultivated  in  greater  or  less  abundance  in  Switzerland 
during  former  successive  periods,  and  which  generally  differed 
more  or  less  from  our  existing  varieties.  The  peculiar  small- 
eared  and  small-grained  wheat,  already  alluded  to,  was  the 
commonest  kind  during  the  Stone  period;  it  lasted  down  to 
the  Helvetico-Eoman  age,  and  then  became  extinct.  A  second 
kind  was  rare  at  first,  but  afterwards  became  more  frequent. 
A  third,  the  Egyptian  wheat  (T.  turgidum),  does  not  agree 
exactly  with  any  existing  variety,  and  was  rare  during  the 
Stone  period.  A  fourth  kind  (T.  dicoccum)  differs  from  all 
known  varieties  of  this  form,  A  fifth  kind  (T.  monococcum) 
is  known  to  have  existed  during  the  Stone  period  only  by 
the  presence  of  a  single  ear.  A  sixth  kind,  the  common 
T.  spelta,  was  not  introduced  into  Switzerland  until  the 
Bronze  age.  Of  barley,  besides  the  short-eared  and  small- 
grained  kind,  two  others  were  cultivated,  one  of  which  was 
very  scarce,  and  resembled  our  present  common  H.  distichum. 
During  the  Bronze  age  rye  and  oats  were  introduced ;  the 
oat-grains  being  somewhat  smaller  than  those  produced  by 
our  existing  varieties.  The  poppy  was  largely  cultivated 
during  the  Stone  period,  probably  for  its  oil ;  but  the  variety 
which  then  existed  is  not  now  known.  A  peculiar  pea  with 
small  seeds  lasted  from  the  Stone  to  the  Bronze  age,  and  then 
became  extinct ;  whilst  a  peculiar  bean,  likewise  having  small 
peeds,  came  in  at  the  Bronze  period  and  lasted  to  the  time 
of  the    liomans.     These  details  sound  like  the  descriptions 

*■   Heer,  as  quoted  by  Carl  Vogt,  '  Lectures  on  Man,'  Eng.  translat,  p.  355, 
23 


338  CEREAL  PLANTS.  Chap.  IX. 

o-iven  by  paleeontoiogists  of  the  first  appearance,  the  increasing 
rarity,  and  final  extinction  or  modification  of  fossil  species, 
embedded  in  the  successive  stages  of  a  geological  formation. 

Finally,  every  one  must  judge  for  himself  whether  it  in 
more  probable  that  the  several  forms  of  wheat,  barley,  rye^ 
and  oats  are  descended  from  between  ten  and  fifteen  species, 
most  of  which  are  now  either  unknown  or  extinct,  or  whether 
they  are  descended  from  between  four  and  eight  species, 
which  may  have  either  closely  resembled  our  present  cultivated 
forms,  or  have  been  so  widely  different  as  to  escape  identifica- 
tion. In  this  latter  case  we  must  conclude  that  man  cultivated 
the  cereals  at  an  enormously  remote  period,  and  that  he 
formerly  practised  some  degree  of  selection,  which  in  itself  is 
not  improbable.  We  may,  perhaps,  further  believe  that,  when 
wheat  was  first  cultivated  the  ears  and  grains  increased 
quickly  in  size,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  roots  of  the  wild 
carrot  and  parsnip  are  known  to  increase  quickly  in  bulk 
under  cultivation. 

Maize  or  Indian  Corn:  Zea  mays. — Botanists  are  nearly  unani- 
mous that  all  the  cultivated  kinds  belong  to  the  same  species. 
It  is  undoubtedly  ^°  of  American  origin,  and  was  grown  by  the 
aborigines  throughout  the  continent  from  New  England  to  Chili. 
Ito  cultivation  must  have  been  extremely  ancient,  for  Tschadi  ^^ 
describes  two  kinds,  now  extinct  or  not  known  in  Peru,  which  were 
taken  from  tombs  apparently  prior  to  the  dynasty  of  the  Incas. 
But  there  is  even  stronger  evidence  of  antiquity,  for  I  found  on  the 
coast  of  Peru  ^^  heads  of  maize,  together  with  eighteen  species  of 
recent  sea-shell,  embedded  in  a  beach  which  had  been  upraised  at 
least  85  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  In  accordance  with  this 
ancient  cultivation,  numerous  American  varieties  have  arisen.  The 
aboriginal  form  has  not  as  yet  been  discovered  in  the  wild  state. 
A  peculiar  kind/^  in  which  the  grains,  instead  of  being  naked,  are 

50  See  Alph.  De  Candolle's  long  dis-  'Journal  of  Hort.  Soc.,'  vol.  i.,  184G, 

cussion  in  his  '  Geograph.  Bot.,' p.  942.  p.  115,  where  an  account  is  given  of 

With  respect  to  New  England,  see  Silli-  the    result    of    sowing    the    seed.     A 

man's  'American   Journal,'  vol.  xliv.  young  Guarany  Indian,  on  seeing  this 

p.  99.  kind  of  maize,  told  Auguste  St.  Hilaire 

*^  'Travels  in  Peru,'  Eng.  translat.,  (see  De  Candolle,  '  Geograph.  Bot.,'  ]>. 

p.  177.  951)  that  it  grew  wild  in  the  humid 

^2  '  Geolog.  Observ.  on  S.  America,'  forests    of    his     native    land.       Air. 

1846,  p.  49.  Teschemacher,  in  '  Proc.  Boston   Soc. 

^^  This  maize  is  figured  in  Bonafous'  Hist.,'    Oct.     19th,    1842,    gives    an 

magnificent    work,    '  Hist.   Nat.    du  account  of  sowing  the  seed. 
Mais,     1836,   PI.   v.  bis,  and    in  the 


Chap.  IX.  MAIZE.  339 

"concealed  by  husks  as  much  as  eleven  lines  in  length,  has  been 
stated,  but  on  insufficient  evidence,  to  grow  wild  in  Brazil.  It  is 
almost  certain  that  the  aboriginal  form  would  have  had  its  grains 
thus  protected ;  ^^  but  the  seeds  of  the  Brazilian  variety  produce, 
as  I  hear  from  Professor  Asa  Gray,  and  as  is  stated  in  two  published 
accounts,  either  common  or  husked  maize ;  and  it  is  not  credible 
that  a  wild  species,  when  first  cultivated,  should  vary  so  quickly 
and  in  so  great  a  degree. 

Maize  has  varied  in  an  extraordinary  and  conspicuous  manner. 
Metzger,^^  who  paid  particular  attention  to  tlie  cultivation  of  this 
plant,  makes  twelve  races  (unter-art)  with  numerous  sub- varieties: 
of  the  latter  some  are  tolerably  constant,  others  quite  inconstant. 
The  different  races  vary  in  height  from  15-18  feet  to  only  16-18 
inches,  as  in  a  dwarf  variety  described  by  Bonafous.  The  whole 
ear  is  variable  in  shape,  being  long  and  narrow,  or  short  and  thick, 
or  branched.  The  ear  in  one  variety  is  more  than  four  times  as 
long  as  in  a  dwarf  kind.  The  seeds  are  arranged  in  the  ear  in  from 
six  to  even  twenty  rows,  or  are  placed  irregularly.  The  seeds 
are  coloured — white,  pale-yellow,  orange,  red,  violet,  or  elegantly 
streaked  with  black  ;^'^  and  in  the  same  ear  there  are  sometimes 
seeds  of  two  colours.  In  a  small  collection  I  found  that  a  single 
grain  of  one  variety  nearly  equalled  in  weight  seven  grains  of 
another  variety.  The  shape  of  the  seed  varies  greatly,  being  very 
flat,  or  nearly  globular,  or  oval ;  broader  than  long,  or  longer  than 
broad;  without  any  point,  or  produced  into  a  sharp  tooth,  and 
this  tooth  is  sometimes  recurved.  One  variety  (the  rugosa  of 
Bonafous,  and  which  is  extensively  cultivated  in  the  United  States 
as  sweet  corn)  has  its  seeds  curiously  wrinkled,  giving  to  the  whole 
ear  a  singular  appearance.  Another  variety  (the  cymosa  of  Bon.) 
carries  its  ears  so  crowded  together  that  it  is  called  ma'is  a  bouquet. 
The  seeds  of  some  varieties  contain  much  glucose  instead  of  starch. 
Male  flowers  sometimes  appear  amongst  the  female  flowers,  and 
Mr.  J.  Scott  has  lately  observed  the  rarer  case  of  female  flowers  on 
a  true  male  panicle,  and  likewise  hermaphrodite  flowers.^''  Azara 
describes  ^*  a  variety  in  Paraguay  the  grains  of  which  are  very 
tender,  and  he  states  that  several  varieties  are  fitted  for  being  cooked 
in  various  ways.  The  varieties  also  differ  greatly  in  precocity,  and 
have  different  powers  of  resisting  dryness  and  the  action  of  violent 
wind.''^  Some  of  the  foregoing  differences  would  certainly  be  con- 
sidered of  specific  value  with  plants  in  a  state  of  nature. 

Le  Comte  Re  states  that  the  grains  of  all  the  varieties  which  he 


5*  Moquin-Tandon,  '  Elements  de  p.  80;  Al.  De  Candolle,  ibid.,  p.  951. 

Teratologic,'  1841,  p.  126.  67 '  Transact.    Bot.   See.   of  Edin- 

55  'Die  Getreidearten,'  1841,  s.  208.  burgh,'  vol.  viii.  p.  60. 

I  have  modified  a  few  of  Metzger's  ^^ '  Voyages  dans  I'Amerique  Meri- 

statements  in  accordance  with  tiiose  dionale,'  toin.  i.  p.  147. 

made  by  Bonafous  in  his  great  work,  ^^  Bonafous, '  Hist.  Nat.  du  Mais,' 

'  Hist.  Nat.  du  Ma'is,'  1836.  p.  31, 

66  Godron,  'De  I'Espece,'  tom.  ii. 


340  CEREAL  PLANTS.  CHi\r.  1X_ 

cultivated  ultimately  assumed  a  yellow  colour.  But  Bonafous^*^ 
found  that  most  of  those  which  he  sowed  for  ten  consecutive  years 
kept  true  to  their  proper  tints;  and  he  adds  that  in  the  valleys  of 
the  Pyrenees  and  on  the  plains  of  Piedmont  a  white  maize  has  been 
cultivated  for  more  than  a  century,  and  has  undergone  no  change. 

The  tall  kinds  grown  in  southern  latitudes,  and  therefore  exposed 
to  great  heat,  require  from  six  to  seven  months  to  ripen  their  seed ; 
whereas  the  dwarf  kinds,  grown  in  northern  and  colder  climates, 
require  only  from  three  to  four  months.*^'  Peter  Kalm,^^  who 
jDarticularly  attended  to  this  plant,  says,  that  in  the  United  States, 
in  proceeding  from  south  to  north,  the  plants  steadily  diminish  in 
bulk.  Seeds  brought  from  lat.  37°  in  Virginia,  and  sown  in  lat. 
4:3°-44°  in  New  England,  produce  plants  which  will  not  ripen  their 
seed,  or  ripen  them  with  the  utmost  difficulty.  So  it  is  with  seed 
carried  from  New  England  to  lat.  45°-47°  in  Canada.  By  taking 
great  care  at  first,  the  southern  kinds  after  some  years'  culture 
ripen  their  seed  perfectly  in  their  northern  homes,  so  that  this  is  an 
analogous  case  with  that  of  the  conversion  of  summer  into  winter 
wheat,  and  conversely.  When  tall  and  dwarf  maize  are  planted 
together,  the  dwarf  kinds  are  in  full  flower  before  the  others  have 
produced  a  single  flower ;  and  in  Pennsylvania  they  ripen  their 
seeds  six  weeks  earlier  than  the  tall  maize.  Metzger  also  mentions 
a  European  maize  which  ripens  its  seed  four  weeks  earlier  than 
another  European  kind.  With  these  facts,  so  plainly  showing 
inherited  acclimatisation,  we  may  readily  believe  Kalm,  who  states 
that  in  North  America  maize  and  some  other  plants  have  gradually 
been  cultivated  further  and  further  nothward.  All  writers  agree 
that  to  keep  the  varieties  of  maize  pure  they  must  be  planted 
separately  so  that  they  shall  not  cross. 

The  effects  of  the  climate  of  Europe  on  the  American  varieties  is 
highly  remarkable.  Metzger  obtained  seed  from  various  parts  of 
America,  and  cultivated  several  kinds  in  Germany.  I  will  give  an 
abstract  of  the  changes  observed  ^^  in  one  case,  namely,  with  a  tall 
kind  (Breit-korniger  mais,  Zea  aUissima)  brought  from  the  warmer 
parts  of  America.  During  the  first  year  the  plants  were  twelvj 
feet  high,  and  a  few  seeds  were  perfected;  the  lower  seeds  in  the  ear 
kept  true  to  their  proper  form,  but  the  upper  seeds  became  slightly 
changed.  In  the  second  generation  the  plants  were  from  nine  to 
ten  feet  in  height,  and  ripened  their  seed  better ;  the  depression  on 
the  outer  side  of  the  seed  had  almost  disappeared,  and  the  original 
beautiful  white  colour  had  become  duskier.  Some  of  the  seeds  had 
even  become  yellow,  and  in  their  now  rounded  form  they  ap- 
proached common  European  maize.  In  the  third  generation  nearly 
all  resemblance  to  the  original  and  very  distinct  American  parent- 


80  Ibid.,  p.  31.  iv.    I  have  consulted  an  old  English 

61  Metzger, '  Getreidearteu,'  s.  206.  MS.  translation. 
«2 '  Description  of   Maize,'   by   P.  «3 '  Getreidearten,'  s.  208. 

Kalm,  1752,  in  '  Swedish  Acts,'  vol. 


Cjiap.  IX.  CULINARY    PLANTS :     CABBAGES.  84i 

form  was  lost.  In  the  sixth  generation  this  maize  perfectly 
resembled  a  Euroijean  variety,  described  as  the  second  sub- variety 
of  the  fifth  race.  When  Metzger  published  his  book,  this  variety 
was  still  cultivated  near  Heidelberg,  and  could  be  distinguished 
from  the  common  kind  only  by  a  somewhat  more  vigorous  growth. 
Analogous  results  were  obtained  by  the  cultivation  of  another 
American  race,  the  "white-tooth  corn,"  in  which  the  tooth  nearly 
disappeared  even  in  the  second  generation.  A  third  race,  the 
"chicken  corn,"  did  not  undergo  so  great  a  change,  but  the  seeds 
became  less  polished  and  pellucid.  In  the  above  cases  the  seeds 
were  carried  from  a  warm  to  a  colder  climate.  But  Fritz  Miiller 
informs  me  that  a  dwarf  variety  with  small  rounded  seeds  (papa- 
gaien-mais),  introduced  from  Germany  into  S.  Brazil,  produces 
plants  as  tall,  with  seeds  as  flat,  as  those  of  the  kind  commonly 
cultivated  there. 

These  facts  afford  the  most  remarkable  instance  known  to 
me  of  the  direct  and  prompt  action  of  climate  on  a  plant. 
It  might  have  been  expected  that  the  tallness  of  the  stem, 
the  period  of  vegetation,  and  the  ripening  of  the  seed,  would 
have  been  thus  affected ;  but  it  is  a  much  more  surprising- 
fact  that  the  seeds  should  have  undergone  so  rajoid  and  great 
a  change.  As,  however,  flowers,  with  their  product  the  seed, 
are  formed  by  the  metamorphosis  of  the  stem  and  leaves,  any. 
modification  in  these  latter  organs  would  be  apt  to  extend, 
through  correlation,  to  the  organs  of  fructification 

Cahbage  (Brassica  oleraceci). — Every  one  knows  how  greatly  the 
various  kinds  of  cabbage  diifer  in  appearance.  In  the  Island  of 
Jersey,  from  the  effects  of  particular  culture  and  of  climate,  a  stalk 
has  grown  to  the  height  of  sixteen  feet,  and  "  had  its  spring  shoots 
at  the  top  occupied  by  a  magpie's  nest :  "  the  woody  stems  are  not 
unfrequently  from  ten  to  twelve  feet  in  height,  and  are  there  used 
as  rafters  ^'^  and  as  walking-sticks.  We  are  thus  reminded  that  in 
certain  countries  plants  belonging  to  the  generally  herbaceous 
order  of  the  CrucifersB  are  developed  into  trees.  Every  one  can 
appreciate  the  difference  between  green  or  red  cabbages  with 
great  single  heads;  Brussel-sprouts  with  numerous  little  heads; 
broccolis  and  cauliflowers  with  the  greater  number  of  their  flowers 
in  an  aborted  condition,  incapable  of  producing  seed,  and  borne  in 
a  dense  corymb  instead  of  an  open  panicle;  savoys  with  their 
blistered  and  wrinkled  leaves;  and  borecoles  and  kails,  which 
come  nearest  to  the  wild  parent-form.     There  are  also  various 


^*  '  Cabbage  Timber,  *  Gardener's  walking-stick  made  from  a  cabbage- 
Chron.,'  1856,  p,  744,  quoted  from  stalk  is  exhibited  in  the  Mu.sexim  at 
Hooker's    'Journal    of    Botany.'     A        Kew. 


342  CULINAEY  PLANTS.  Chap.  IX 

frizzled  and  laciniated  kinds,  some  of  such  beautiful  colours  that 
Vilmorin  in  his  Catalogue  of  1851  enumerates  ten  varieties  which 
are  valued  solely  for  ornament.  Some  kinds  are  less  commonly 
known,  such  as  the  Portuguese  Couve  Tronchuda,  with  the  ribs  of 
its  leaves  greatly  thickened ;  and  the  Kohlrabi  or  choux-raves, 
with  their  stems  enlarged  into  great  turnip-like  masses  above  the 
ground;  and  the  recently  formed  new  race^^  of  the  choux-raves, 
ah-eady  including  nine  sub-varieties,  in  which  the  enlarged  part 
hos  beneath  the  ground  like  a  turnip. 

Although  we  see  such  great  differences  in  the  shape,  size,  colour, 
arrangement,  and  manner  of  growth  of  the  leaves  and  stem,  and  of 
the  flower-stems  in  the  broccoli  and  cauliflower,  it  is  remarkable 
that  the  flowers  themselves,  the  seed-pods  and  seeds,  present  ex- 
tremely slight  differences  or  none  at  all.^^  I  compared  the  flowers 
of  all  the  principal  kinds ;  those  of  the  Couve  Tronchuda  are  white 
and  rather  smaller  than  in  common  cabbages ;  those  of  the  Ports- 
mouth broccoli  have  narrower  sepals,  and  smaller,  less  elongated 
petals ;  and  in  no  other  cabbage  could  any  difference  be  detected. 
With  respect  to  the  seed-pods,  in  the  purple  Kohlrabi  alone,  do 
they  differ,  being  a  little  longer  and  narrower  than  usual.  I  made 
a  collection  of  the  seeds  of  twenty-eight  different  kinds,  and  most 
of  them  were  undistinguishable ;  when  there  was  any  difference 
it  was  excessively  slight ;  thus,  the  seeds  of  various  broccolis  and 
cauliflowers,  when  seen  in  mass,  are  a  little  redder;  those  of  the 
early  green  Ulm  savoy  are  rather  smaller ;  and  those  of  the  Breda 
kail  slightly  larger  than  usual,  but  not  larger  than  the  seeds  of 
the  wild  cabbage  from  the  coast  of  Wales.  What  a  contrast  in 
the  amount  of  difference  is  presented  if,  on  the  one  hand,  we 
compare  the  leaves  and  stems  of  the  various  kinds  of  cabbage  with 
their  flowers,  pods,  and  seeds,  and  on  the  other  hand  the  corre- 
sponding parts  in  the  varieties  of  maize  and  wheat!  The  expla- 
nation is  obvious ;  the  seeds  alone  are  valued  in  our  cereals,  and 
their  variations  have  been  selected ;  whereas  the  seeds,  seed-pods, 
and  flowers  have  been  utterly  neglectc^d  in  the  cabbage,  whilst 
many  useful  variations  in  their  leaves  and  stems  have  been  noticed 
and  preserved  from  an  extremely  remote  period,  for  cabbages  were 
cultivated  by  the  old  Celts.^^ 

It  would  be  useless  to  give  a  classified  description^^  of  the 
numerous  races,  sub-races,  and  varieties  of  the  cabbage;  but  it 
may  be  mentioned  that  Dr.  Lindley  has  lately  proposed  ^^  a  system 
founded  on  the  state  of  development  of  the  terminal  and  lateral 


«5  '  Journal  de  la  Soc.  Imp.  d'Horti-  des  Celtes,'  1818,  p.  438. 

culture,'  1855,  p.  254,  quoted  from  ""  See  the   elder   De   Candolle,  in 

'  Gartenflora,'  Ap.  1855.  '  Transact,  of  Hort.  Soc.,'  vol.  v. ;  and 

"^^  Godron,  '  De  I'Espece,'  torn.  ii.  p.  Metzger  '  Kohlarten,'  &c, 

52;    Metzger,    'Syst.     Beschreibuug  ^^  'Gardener's  Chronide,'  1859.  p 

icr  Knit.  Kohlarten,'  1833,  s.  6,  992. 

''^  Reguier,' DerEconomiePubiiqu-^ 


Chap.  IX.  CABBAGES,  343 

leaf-buds.  Thus:  I.  AJ]  the  leaf- buds  active  and  open,  as  in  the 
wild- cabbage,  kail,  &c.  II.  All  the  leaf-buds  active,  but  forming 
heads,  as  in  Brussel-sprouts,  &c.  III.  Terminal  leaf-bud  alone 
active,  forming  a  head  as  in  common  cabbages,  savoys,  &c.  IV. 
Terminal  leaf-bud  alone  active,  and  open,  with  most  of  the  flowers 
abortive  and  succulent,  as  in  the  cauliflower  and  broccoli.  V.  All 
the  leaf-buds  active  and  open,  with  most  of  the  flowers  abortive 
and  succulent,  as  in  the  sprouiing-broccoli.  This  latter  variety  is 
a  new  one,  and  bears  the  same  relation  to  common  broccoli,  as 
Brussel-sprouts  do  to  common  cabbages;  it  suddenly  appeared 
in  a  bed  of  common  broccoli,  and  was  found  faithfully  to  transmit 
its  newly-acquired  and  remarkable  characters. 

The  principal  kinds  of  cabbage  existed  at  least  as  early  as  the 
sixteenth  century,'^*^  so  that  numerous  modifications  of  structure 
haA^e  been  inherited  for  a  long  period.  This  fact  is  the  more 
remarkable  as  great  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  crossing  of 
the  different  kinds.  To  give  proof  of  this :  I  raised  238  seedhngs 
from  cabbages  of  different  kinds,  which  had  purposely  been  planted 
near  each  other,  and  of  the  seedlings  no  less  than  155  were  plainly 
deteriorated  and  mongrelized;  nor  were  the  remiaining  78  all 
perfectly  true.  It  may  be  doubted  whether  many  permanent 
varieties  have  been  formed  by  intentional  or  accidental  crosses; 
for  such  crossed  plants  are  found  to  be  very  inconstant.  One 
kind,  however,  called  "  Cottager's  Kail,"  has  lately  been  produced 
by  crossing  common  kail  and  Brussel-sprouts,  recrossed  M'ith 
purple  broccoli,^^  and  is  said  to  be  true ;  but  plants  raised  by  me 
were  not  nearly  so  constant  in  character  as  any  common  kind  of 
cabbage. 

Although  most  of  the  kinds  keep  true  if  carefully  preserved  from 
crossing,  yet  the  seed-beds  must  be  yearly  examined,  and  a  few 
seedlings  a]-e  generally  found  false ;  but  even  in  this  case  the  force 
of  inheritance  is  shown,  for,  as  Metzger  has  remarked  "^^  when 
speaking  of  Brussel-sprouts,  the  variations  generally  keep  to  their 
"  unter  art,"  or  main  race.  But  in  order  that  any  kind  may  be 
truly  propagated  there  must  be  no  great  change  in  the  conditions 
of  life;  thus  cabbages  will  not  form  heads  in  hot  countries, 
and  the  same  thing  has  been  observed  with  an  English  variety 
grown  during  an  extremely  warm  and  damp  autumn  near  Paris.'^' 
Extremely  poor  soil  also  affects  the  characters  of  certain  varieties. 

Most  authors  believe  that  all  the  races  are  descended  from  the 
wild  cabbage  found  on  the  western  shores  of  Europe ;  but  Alph. 
De  Candolle  "^^  forcibly  argues,  on  historical  and  other  grounds,  that 
it  is  more  probable  that  two  or  three  closely  allied  forms,  generally 
ranked  as  distinct  species,  still  living  in  the  Mediterranean  region, 


^0  Alph.  De  Candolle,  '  Geograph.  "  '  Kohlarten,'  s.  22. 

Bet.'  pp.  842  and  989.  "  Godron,  '  De  I'Espfece,'  torn,  ii.p 

"  'Gardener's  Chron.,' Feb.  1858,  52;  Metzger,  '  Kohlarten,' s.  22. 

p.  128.  '*  'Geograph.  Bet.,' p.  840. 


344  CULINARY   PLANTS.  Chap.  IX. 

are  the  parents,  now  all  commingled  together,  of  the  various 
cultivated  kinds.  In  the  same  manner  as  we  have  often  seen  with 
domesticated  animals,  the  supposed  multiple  origin  of  the  cabbage 
throws  no  light  on  the  characteristic  differences  between  the 
cultivated  forms.  If  our  cabbages  are  the  descendants  of  three 
or  four  distinct  species,  every  trace  of  any  sterility  which  may 
originally  have  existed  between  them  is  now  lost,  for  none  of  the 
varieties  can  be  kept  distinct  without  scrupulous  care  to  prevent 
intercrossing. 

The  other  cultivated  forms  of  the  genus  Brassica  are  descended, 
according  to  the  view  adopted  by  Godron  and  Metzger,^^  from  two 
species,  B.  7iapus  and  ra/p  i ;  but  according  to  other  botanists  from 
three  species ;  whilst  others  again  strongly  suspect  that  all  these 
forms,  both  wild  and  cultivated,  ought  to  be  ranked  as  a  single 
species.  Brassica  napus  has  given  rise  to  two  large  groups,  namely, 
Swedish  turnips  (believed  to  be  of  hybrid  origin)  '^^  and  Colzas, 
the  seeds  of  which  yield  oil.  Brassica  rapt  (of  Koch)  has  also 
given  rise  to  two  races,  namely,  common  turnips  and  the  oil-giving 
rape.  The  evidence  is  unusually  clear  that  these  latter  plants, 
though  so  different  in  external  appearance,  belong  to  the  same 
species;  for  the  turnip  has  been  observed  by  Koch  and  Godron 
to  lose  its  thick  roots  in  uncultivated  soil ;  and  when  rape  and 
turnips  are  sown  together  they  cross  to  such  a  degree  that 
scarcely  a  single  plant  comes  true.''^  Metzger  by  culture  converted 
the  biennial  or  winter  rape  into  the  annual  or  summer  rape,^ 
varieties  which  have  been  thought  by  some  authors  to  be  specifically 
distinct.^* 

In  the  production  of  large,  fleshy,  turnip-like  stems,  we  have 
a  case  of  analogous  variation  in  three  forms  which  are  generally 
considered  as  distinct  species.  But  scarcely  any  modification  seems 
so  easily  acquired  as  a  succulent  enlargement  of  the  stem  or  root — 
that  is,  a  store  of  nutriment  laid  up  for  the  plant's  own  future  use. 
We  see  this  in  our  radishes,  beet,  and  in  the  less  generally  known 
"  turnip-rooted  "  celery,  and  in  the  finocchio,  or  Italian  variety  of  the 
common  fennel.  Mr.  Buckman  has  lately  proved  by  his  interesting 
experiments  how  quickly  the  roots  of  the  wild  parsnip  can  be 
enlarged,  as  Vilmorin  formerly  proved  in  the  case  of  the  carrot.'^ 


"  Godron,  *  De  I'Espece,'  torn.  li.  p.  ^^  '  Gardener's  Chron.  and  Agricult.. 

54;  Metzger,  '  Kohlarten,'  s.  10.  Gazette,'  1855,  p.  730. 

"  'Gardener's  Chron.  and Agricult.  '^  Metzger,  'Kohlarten,'  s.  51. 

Gazette,'    1856,    p.    729.     See,   more  "  These  experiments  by  Vilmorin 

especially,    ibid.,    1868,   p.   275:   the  have  been  quoted  by  many  writers, 

writer  asserts  that  he  planted  a  variety  An   eminent  botanist,  Prof.  Decaisne, 

ufcabbac;e(5.o/£!/acm)  close  to  turnips  has    lately    expressed  doubts  on  the 

{B.  rapa)  and  raised  from  the  crossed  subject  from  his  own  negative  results, 

seedlings  true  Swedish  turnips.  These  but  these  cannot  be  valued  equally 

latter  plants  ought,  therefore,  to  be  with  positive  results.     On  the  other 

classed  with  cabbages  or  turnips,  and  hand,  M.  Carriere  has  lately  stated 

Dot  under  ^.  no/^ws.  (' Gard.   Chrouicle,'  1865,    p.    1154), 


Chap.  IX.  PEAS.  345 

This  latter  plant,  in  its  cultivated  state,  differs  in  scarcely  any 
character  from  the  wild  English  carrot,  except  in  general  luxuri- 
ance and  in  the  size  and  quality  of  its  roots;  but  ten  varieties, 
differing  in  the  colour,  shape,  and  quality  of  ihe  root,  are  cultivated 
in  England  and  come  true  by  seed.*"  Hence  with  the  carrot,  as 
in  so  many  other  cases,  for  instance  with  the  numerous  varieties 
and  sub-varieties  of  the  radish,  that  part  of  the  plant  which  is 
valued  by  man,  falsely  appears  alone  to  have  varied.  The  truth 
is  that  variations  in  this  part  alone  have  been  selected;  and  the 
seedlings  inheriting  a  tendency  to  vary  in  the  same  way,  analogous 
modifications  have  been  again  and  again  selected,  until  at  last 
a  great  amount  of  change  has  been  effected. 

With  respect  to  the  radish,  M.  Carriere,  by  sowing  the  seed  of 
the  wild  huphanus  raphauistrum  in  rich  soil,  and  by  continued 
selection  during  several  generations,  raised  many  varieties,  closely 
like  the  cultivated  radish  {B.  sativus)  in  their  roots,  as  well  as  the 
wonderful  Chinese  vanety,  i?.  ca««r/a^Ms;  Csee  '  Journal  d' Agriculture 
pratique,'  t.  i.  186'J,  p.  159;  also  a  separate  essay, '  Origine  des 
Plants  Domestiques,'  1869.)  Baphanus  ruplianislrum  and  sativus 
have  often  been  ranked  as  distinct  species,  and  owing  to  differences 
in  their  fruit  even  as  distinct  genera ;  but  Professor  Hoffman  ('  Bot. 
Zeitnng,'  1872,  p.  482)  has  now  shewn  that  these  differences,  re- 
markable as  they  are,  graduate  away,  the  fruit  of  B.  cawlatus 
being  intermediate.  By  cultivating  B.  n'phanisfrum  during  several 
generations  (ibid.,  1873,  p.  9),  Professor  Hoffman  also  obtained  plants 
bearing  fruits  like  those  of  B.  sativus. 

tea  (Pisum  sativum). — Most  botanists  look  at  the  garden-pea 
as  specifically  distinct  from  ihe  tield-pea  (P.  arvense).  The  latter 
exists  in  a  wild  state  in  Southern  Europe;  but  the  aboriginal 
parent  of  the  garden-pea  has  been  found  by  one  collector  alone, 
as  he  states,  in  the  Crimea.*^  Andrevv^  Knight  crossed,  as  I  am 
informed  by  the  Rev.  A.  Fitch,  the  field-pea  with  a  well-known 
garden  variety,  the  Prussian  pea,  and  the  cross  seems  to  have  been 
perfectly  fertile.  Dr.  Alefeld  has  recently  studied*^  the  genus 
with  care,  and,  after  having  cultivated  about  fifty  varieties,  concludes 
that  certainly  they  all  belong  to  the  same  species.  It  is  an  interest- 
ing fact  already  alluded  to,  that,  according  to  0.  Heer,*^  the  peas 
found  in  the  lake-habitations  of  Switzerland  of  the  Stone  and 
Bronze  ages,  belong  to  an  extinct  variety,  with  exceedingly  small 


that  he  took  seed  from  a  wild  carrot,  "  Alph.   De  ('andolle,   '  Geoo-rajih. 

growing  far  from  any  cultivated  land,  Bot.,'    960.       Mr.    Bentham    (' Hort. 

and  even  in  the  first  generation  the  Journal,'     vol.    ix.    (1855),    p.     141) 

roots  of  his  seedlings  differed  in  being  believes    that  garden  and  field   peas 

spindle-shaped,  longer,  softer,  and  less  belong  to  the  same  species,  and  in  this 

fibrous  than  those  of  the  wild  plant.  respect  he  differs  from  Dr.  Targioni. 

From  these  seedlings  he  raised  several  ^-  '  Botanische    Zeitung,'    1860,   s. 

distinct  varieties.  204. 

^<*  Loudon's  '  Encyclop.  of  Garden-  *'  'Die  Pflanzen  der  Pfahlbautcn, 

ng,'  p.  835.  1866,  s.  23. 


346  CULINARY  PLANTS.  Chap.  IX. 

seeds,  allied  to  P.  arvense  or  the  field-pea.  The  varieties  of  the 
common  garden-pea  are  numerous,  and  differ  considerably  from 
one  another.  For  comparison  I  planted  at  the  same  time  forty-one, 
Enghsh  and  French  varieties.  They  differed  greatly  in  height, — • 
namely  from  between  6  and  12  inches  to  8  feet,®^— in  manner  o{ 
growth,  and  in  period  of  maturity.  Some  differ  in  general  aspect 
even  while  only  two  or  three  inches  in  height.  The  stems  of  the 
Prussian  pea  are  much  branched.  The  tall  kinds  have  larger 
leaves  than  the  dwarf  kinds,  but  not  in  strict  proportion  to  their 
height : — Hair's  Dwarf  Monmouth  has  very  large  leaves,  and  the 
Pois  nain  hatif,  and  the  moderately  tall  Blue  Frussian,  have  leaves 
about  two-thirds  of  the  size  of  the  tallest  kind.  In  the  Danecroft 
the  leaflets  are  rather  small  and  a  little  pointed;  in  the  Queen  of 
Dwarfs  rather  rounded  ;  and  in  the  Queen  of  England  broad  and 
large.  In  these  three  peas  the  slight  differences  in  the  shape  of  the 
leaves  are  accompanied  by  slight  differences  in  colour.  In  the 
Pois  geant  sans  parchemin,  which  bears  purple  flowers,  the  leaflets 
in  the  young  plant  are  edged  with  red ;  and  in  all  the  peas  with 
purple  flowers  the  stipules  are  marked  with  red. 

In  the  different  varieties,  one,  two,  or  several  flowers  in  a  small 
cluster,  are  borne  on  the  same  peduncle;  and  this  is  a  difference 
which  is  considei'ed  of  specific  value  in  some  of  the  Leguminosse, 
In  all  the  varieties  the  flowers  closely  resemble  each  other  except 
in  colour  and  size.  They  are  generally  white,  sometimes  purple, 
but  the  colour  is  inconstant  even  in  the  same  variety.  In  Warner's 
PJmperor,  which  is  a  tall  kind,  the  flowers  are  nearly  double  the 
size  of  the  Fois  nain  hatif;  but  Hair's  Dwarf  Monmouth,  which 
has  large  leaves,  likewise  has  large  flowers.  The  calyx  in  the  Victoria 
Marrow  is  large,  and  in  Bishops  Long  Pod  the  sepals  are  rather 
narrow.     In  no  other  kind  is  there  any  difference  in  the  flower. 

The  pods  and  seeds,  which  with  natural  species  afford  snch 
constant  characters,  differ  greatly  in  the  cultivated  varieties  of  the 
pea ;  and  these  are  the  valuable,  and  consequently  the  selected 
parts.  Sugar  peas,  or  Dais  sans  parchemin,  are  remarkable  from 
their  thin  pods,  which,  whilst  young,  are  cooked  and  eaten  whole ; 
and  in  this  group,  which,  according  to  Mr.  Gordon  includes  eleven 
sub- varieties,  it  is  the  pod  which  differs  most ;  thus  Lewis's  Negro- 
podded  pea  has  a  straight,  broad,  smooth,  and  dark- purple  pod, 
with  the  husk  not  so  thin  as  in  the  other  kinds ;  the  pod  of  another 
variety  is  extremely  bowed;  that  of  the  Pois  geant  it  much  pointed 
at  the  extremity ;  and  in  the  variety  "  a  grands  cosses "  the  peas 
are  seen  through  the  husk  in  so  conspicuous  a  manner  that  the  pod, 
especially  when  dry,  can  hardly  at  first  be  recognised  as  that  of  a  pea. 

In  the  ordinary  varieties  the  pods  also  differ  much  in  size;— 
in    colour,  that  of    Woodford's    Green  Marrow   being   bright-green 


^*  A  variety  called  the  Rouncira  series),  vol.  i.,  1835,  p.  374,  from 
attains  this  height,  as  is  stated  by  Mr.  which  paper  I  have  taken  some  facts 
Gordou  in  '  Transact.  Hort.  See'  (2nd 


Chap  IX 


PEAS. 


Ml 


when  dry,  instead  of  pale  brown,  and  that  of  the  purple-podded 
pea  being  expressed  by  its  name ; — in  smoothness,  that  of  Danecro/t 
being  remarkably  glossy,  whereas  that  of  the  Ne  plus  ultra  is 
rugged ;  in  being  either  nearly  cylindrical,  or  broad  and  flat  ;— 
in  being  pointed  at  the  end,  as  in  Thurston's  Reliance,  or  much 
truncated,  as  in  the  American  Dwarf.  In  the  Auvergne  j>ea  the 
whole  end  of  the  pod  is  bowed  upwards.  In  the  Queen  of  the  Btoar/s 
and  in  Scimitar  peas  the  pod  is  almost  (elliptic  in  shape.  I  here 
give  drawings  of  the  four  most  distinct  pods  produced  by  the 
plants  cultivated  by  me. 


Fi*.  41.— Pods  and  Peas  I.  Queen  of  Dwarfs.  II.  American  Dwarf.  III.  Tliiirstou's 
Reliance. — IV  Pois  Geant  sans  parchemin.  a.  Dan  O'Fvuurke  Pea.  b.  Queen  of  Dwarfs 
Pea.    c.  Knight's  Tall  White  Marruw.    d.  Lewis's  i^e^ro  Pea. 


348  CULINARY   PLANTS.  Char  IX 

In  the  pea  itself  we  have  every  tint  between  almost  pure  white, 
brown,  yellow,  and  intense  green;  in  the  varietits  of  the  sugar  peas 
we  have  these  same  tints,  together  with  red  passing  through  fine 
purple  into  a  dark  chocolate  tint.  These  colours  are  either  uniform 
or  distributed  in  dots,  stripo,  or  moss-like  marks;  they  depend 
in  some  cases  on  the  colour  of  the  cotyledons  seen  through  the 
skin,  and  in  other  cases  on  the  outer  coats  of  the  pea  itself.  In 
the  different  varieties,  the  pods  contain,  according  to  Mr.  Gordon, 
from  eleven  or  twelve  to  only  four  or  five  peas.  The  largest  peas 
are  nearly  twice  as  much  in  diameter  as  the  smallest ;  and  the 
latter  are  not  always  borne  by  the  most  dwarfed  kinds.  Peas  differ 
much  in  shape,  being  smooth  and  spherical,  smooth  and  oblong, 
nearly  oval  in  the  Queen  of  the  Dwarfs,  and  nearly  cubical  and 
crumpled  in  many  of  the  larger  kinds. 

With  respect  to  the  value  of  the  differences  between  the  chief 
varieties,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that,  if  one  of  the  tall  Sugar-peas, 
with  purple  flowers,  thin-skinned  pods  of  an  extraordinary  shape, 
including  large,  dark-purple  peas,  grew  wild  by  the  side  of  the 
lowly  Queen  of  the  Dwarfs,  with  white  flowers,  greyish-green,  rounded 
leaves,  scimitar-like  pods,  containing  oblong,  smooth,  pale-coloured 
peas,  which  became  mature  at  a  different  season :  or  by  the  side 
of  one  of  the  gigantic  sorts,  like  the  Champion  of  England,  with 
leaves  of  great  size,  pointed  pods,  and  large,  green,  crumpled, 
almost  cubical  peas, — all  three  kinds  would  be  ranked  as  distinct 
species. 

Andrew  Knight  ^^  has  observed  that  the  varieties  of  peas  keep 
very  true,  because  they  are  not  crossed  by  insects.  As  far  as  the 
fact  of  keeping  true  is  concerned,  I  hear  from  Mr.  Masters  of 
Canterbury,  well  known  as  the  originator  of  several  new  kinds, 
that  certain  \arieties  have  remained  constant  for  a  considerable 
time, — for  instance,  Knight's  Blua  Dwurf,  which  came  out  about 
the  year  1820.^^  But  the  greater  number  of  varieties  have  a 
singularly  short  existence :  thus  Loudon  remarks  ^'  that  "  sorts 
which  were  highly  approved  in  1821,  are  now,  in  1833,  nowhere  to 
be  found ;"  and  on  comparing  the  lists  of  1833  with  those  of  1855, 
I  find  that  nearly  all  the  varieties  have  changed.  Mr.  Masters 
informs  me  that  the  nature  of  the  soil  causes  some  varieties  to  lose 
their  character.  As  with  otlier  plants,  certain  varieties  can  be 
propagated  truly,  whilst  others  show  a  determined  tendency  to 
vary ;  thus  two  peas  differing  in  shape,  one  round  and  the  other 
wrinkled,  were  found  by  Mr.  Masters  within  the  same  pod,  but  the 
plants  raised  from  the  wrinkled  kind  always  evinced  a  strong 
tendency  to  produce  round  peas.  Mr.  Masters  also  raised  from  a 
plant  of  another  variety  four  distinct  sub-varieties,  which  bore  blue 
and  round,  white  and  round,  blue  and  wrinkled,  and  white  and 


"•^  '  Phii.  Tract.*  1799,  p.  196.  *^  '  Encyclopasdia  of  Gardening,'  p 

"^    '  Gardener's  Magazine,'  vol.  i.,       823. 
1826,  p.  153. 


CuAP.  LX  PEAS.  849 

wrinkled  j^eas;  and  although  he  sowed  these  four  varieties  separately 
during  several  successive  years,  each  kind  always  reproduced  all 
four  kinds  mixed  together ! 

With  respect  to  the  varieties  not  naturally  intercrossing,  I  have 
ascertained  that  the  pea,  which  in  this  respect  differs  from  some 
other  Leguminosse,  is  perfectly  fertile  without  the  aid  of  insects. 
Yet  I  have  seen  humble-bees  whilst  sucking  the  nectar  dejDress  the 
keel-petals,  and  become  so  thickly  dusted  with  pollen,  that  it  could 
hardly  fail  to  be  left  on  the  stigma  of  the  next  flower  which  was 
visited.  Nevertheless,  distinct  varieties  growing  closely  together 
rarely  cross;  and  I  have  rea«;on  to  believe  that  this  is  due  to  their 
stigmas  being  prematurely  fertilised  in  this  country  by  pollen  from 
the  same  flower.  The  horticulturists  who  raise  seed-peas  are  thus 
enabled  to  jDlant  distinct  varieties  close  together  without  any  bad 
consequences  ;  and  it  is  certain,  as  I  have  myself  found,  that  true 
seed  may  be  saved  during  at  least  several  generations  under  these 
circumstances.^®  Mr.  Fitch  raised,  as  he  informs  me,  one  variety 
for  twenty  years,  and  it  always  came  true,  though  grown  close  to 
other  varieties.  From  the  analogy  of  kidney-beans  I  should 
have  expected  ®^  that  varieties  thus  circumstanced  would  have  oc- 
casionally crossed ;  and  I  shall  give  in  the  eleventh  chapter  two  cases 
of  this  having  occurred,  as  shown  (in  a  manner  hereafter  to  be  ex- 
plained) by  the  pollen  of  the  one  variety  having  acted  directly  on  the 
seeds  of  the  other.  Whether  many  of  the  new  varieties  which  in- 
cessantly appear  are  due  to  such  occasional  and  accidental  crosses,  I 
do  not  know.  Nor  do  I  know  whether  the  short  existence  of  almost 
all  the  numerous  varieties  is  the  result  of  mere  chang-e  of  fashion,  or 
of  their  having  a  weak  constitution,  from  being  the  product  of  long- 
continued  self-fertilisation.  It  may,  however,  be  noticed  that  several 
of  Andrew  Knight's  varieties,  which  have  endured  longer  than  most 
kinds,  were  raised  towards  the  close  of  the  last  century  by  artificial 
crosses ;  some  of  them,  I  believe,  were  still  vigorous  in  1860 ; 
but  now,  in  1865,  a  writer,  speaking  ^^  of  Knight's  four  kinds  of 
marrows,  says,  they  have  acquired  a  famous  history,  but  their 
glory  has  departed. 

With  respect  to  Beans  (F((ha  vulgaris),  1  will  say  but  little.  Dr. 
Alefeld  has  given  ^^  short  diagnostic  characters  of  forty  varieties. 
Everyone  who  has  seen  a  collection  must  have  been  struck  with 
the  gieat  difference  in  shape,  thickness,  proportional  length  and 
breadth,  colour,  and  size  which  beans  pr(^,sent.  What  a  contrast 
between  a  Windsor  and  Horse-bean!  As  in  the  case  of  the  ])ea, 
our  existing  varieties  were   preceded   during  the   Bronze  age   in 


*"  See  Dr.   Anderson  to  the  same  'Gardener's    Chronicle,*    1857,    Oct. 

effetit  in  the  *  Bath  Soc.  Agricultural  25. 
Papers,'  vol.  iv.  p.  87.  »»  'Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1865,  p 

•^9  I   have  published  full  details  of  387. 
expenraeuts   on    this   subject  in   the  *'  '  Bonplandia,' s.,  1862,  s.  348 


350  CULINARY  PLANTS.  Chap.  IX 

Switzerland^^  by  a  peculiar  and  now  extinct  variety  producing 
very  small  beans.^^ 

Fotato  (Solanum  tuberosum). — There  is  little  doubt  about  the 
parentage  of  this  plant ;  for  the  cultivated  varieties  differ  extremely 
little  in  general  appearance  from  the  wild  species,  which  can  be 
recognised  in  its  native  land  at  the  first  glance.^^  The  varieties 
cultivated  in  Britain  are  numerous;  thus  Lawson^^  gives  a  de- 
scription of  175  kinds.  I  planted  eighteen  kinds  in  adjoining 
rov/s ;  their  stems  and  leaves  differed  but  little,  and  in  several 
cases  there  was  as  great  a  difference  between  the  individuals  of 
the  same  variety  as  between  the  different  varieties.  The  flower 
varied  in  size,  and  in  colour  between  white  and  purple,  but  in  no 
other  respect,  except  that  in  one  kind  the  sepals  were  somewhat 
elongated.  One  strange  variety  has  been  described  which  always 
produces  two  sorts  of  flowers,  the  first  double  and  sterile,  the 
second  single  and  fertile.^"  The  fruit  or. berries  also  differ,  but 
only  in  a  slight  degree.^^  The  varieties  are  liable  in  very  different 
degree  to  the. attack  of  the  Colorado  potato-beetle.*^^ 

The  tubers,  on  the  other  hand,  present  a  wonderful  amount  of 
diversity.  This  fact  accords  with  the  principle  that  the  valuable 
and  selected  parts  of  all  cultivated  productions  present  the  greatest 
amount  of  modification.  They  differ  much  in  size  and  shape,  being 
globular,  oval,  flattened,  kidney-like,  or  cylindrical.  One  variety 
from  Peru  is  described  ^^  as  being  quite  straight,  and  at  least  six 
inches  in  length,  though  no  thicker  than  a  man's  finger.  The  eyes 
or  buds  differ  in  form,  position,  and  colour.  The  manner  in  which 
the  tubers  are  arranged  on  the  so-called  roots  or  rhizomes  is 
different;  thus,  in  the  gurken-hartoffeln  they  form  a  pyramid  "with 
the  apex  downwards,  and  in  another  variety  they  bury  themselves 
deep  in  tne  ground.  The  roots  themselves  run  either  near  the 
surface  or  deep  in  the  ground.     The  tubers  also  differ  in  smoothness 


92  Heer, '  Dio  Pflanzen  der  Pfahl-  1845.   p.   285.  Sabine,    in 'Transact 

auten,'  1866,  s.  22.  Hort.  Soc.,'  vol.  v.  p.  249. 

"^  Mr.  BeatLam  informs  me  that  in  ^^  'Synopsis      of     the     Vegetable 

Poitou   and    the   adjoining   parts    of  Products     of    Scotland,'    quoted     in 

France,  varieties  otFhascolus  vulgaris  Wilson's  '  British  Farming,'  p.  317. 
are  extremely  numerous,  and  so  dif-  ®^  Sir  G.  Mackenzie,  in  '  Gardener's 

t'erent  thatthey  were  describedby  Savi  Chix)nicle,'  1845,  p.  790. 
as  distinct    species.       Mr.    Bentham  *''  Putsche  uud  Vertuch,  '  Versuch 

believes  that  ail  are  descended   from  einer    Monographic    der    Kartotfein,' 

an    unknown    eastern    species.     Al-  1819,  s.  9,  15.    z&g  also  Dr.  Anderson's 

though  the  varieties  differ  so  greatly  '  Recreations  in  Agriculture,' vol.   iv. 

in  stature  and  in  their  seeds,  "  there  p.  325. 

is  a  remarkable  sameness  in  the  ne-  ^^  Walsh,  'The  American  Entomo- 

glected    characters    of    foliage    and  logist,'  18ti9,  p.  160.    Also  S.  Tennev, 

.lowers,  and  especially   in  the   brae-  '  The  American  Naturalist,' May,  1871, 

tooles,  an  insignificant  character   in  p.  171. 
the  eyes  even  of  botanists."  ^^  '  Gardener's  Chronicle/  1862,  p. 

**  Darwin, 'Journal  of  Researches,'  1052. 


CuAr.  IX.  POTATOES.  351 

and  colour,  being  externally  white,  red,  pnrple,  or  almost  black, 
and  internally  white,  yellow,  or  almost  black.  They  differ  in 
flavour  and  quality,  being  either  waxy  or  mealy  ;  in  their  period  of 
maturity,  and  in  their  capacity  for  long  preservation. 

As  with  many  other  plants  which  have  been  long  proptigat'  d  by 
bulbs,  tubers,  cuttings,  (fee,  by  which  means  the  same  individual  is 
exposed  during  a  length  of  time  to  diversified  conditions,  seedlmg 
potatoes  generally  display  innumerable  slight  differences.  Several 
varieties,  even  when  propagated  by  tubers,  are  far  from  constant,  as 
will  be  seen  in  the  chapter  on  Bud- variation.  Dr.  Anderson ^^° 
procured  seed  from  an  Irish  purple  potato,  which  grew  far  from 
any  other  kind,  so  that  it  could  not  at  least  in  this  generation  have 
been  crossed,  yet  the  many  seedlings  varied  in  almost  every  possible 
respect,  so  that  "  scarcely  two  plants  were  exactly  alike."  Some  of 
the  plants  which  closely  resembled  each  other  above  ground,  pro- 
duced extremely  dissimilar  tubers ;  and  some  tubers  which  externally 
could  hardly  be  distinguished,  differed  widely  in  quality  when 
cooked.  Even  in  this  case  of  extreme  variability,  the  parent-stock 
had  some  influence  on  the  progeny,  for  the  greater  number  of  the 
seedlings  resembled  in  some  degree  the  parent  Irish  potato.  Kidney 
potatoes  must  be  ranked  amongst  the  most  highly  cultivated 
and  artificial  races;  nevertheless  their  peculiarities  can  often  be 
strictly  propagated  by  seed.  A  great  authority,  Mr.  Eivers,^°^ 
states  that  "  seedlings  from  the  ash-leaved  kidney  always  bear  a 
stroug  resemblance  to  their  parent.  Seedlings  from  the  fluke- 
kidney  are  still  more  remarkable  for  their  adherence  to  their  parent 
stock,  for,  on  closely  observing  a  great  number  during  two  seasons, 
I  have  not  been  able  to  observe  the  least  difference,  either  in  earliness, 
productiveness,  or  in  the  size  or  shape  of  their  tubers." 

100 '  Bath  Society  Agricult.  Papers,'  loi '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1863,  p. 

vol.  V.  p.  127.     And  '  Eecreations  in       643. 
Agriculture,'  vol.  v.  p.  86. 


352  FRUITS.  Chap.  X. 


CHAPTER  X. 

PLANTS  continued  — FRUITS — ORNAMENTAL    TREES — FLOWERS. 

FRUITS — GRAPES — VARY     IN     ODD    AND    TRIFLING    PARTICULARS. 3IUL- 

BERRY — THE    ORANGE     GROUP — SINGULAR     RESULTS    FROM    CROSSING. 


PEACH     AND    NECTARINE  —  BUD    VARIATION  —  ANALOG(^US    VARIATION^ 

RELATION     TO     THE     ALMOND. APIilCOT. PLUMS VARIATION     IN 

THEIR     STONES. CHLRRIES — SINGULAR     VARIETIES     OF. APPLE. • 

PEAR. STRAWBERRY — INTERBLENDING    OF     THE    ORKilNAL    FORMS. 

GOOSEBERRY — STEADY  INCREASE  IN  SIZE  OF  THE  FRUIT — VARIETIES  OF. 
WALNUT. NUT. CUCURBITACEOUS  PLANTS — WONDERFUL  VARIA- 
TION  OF. 

ORNAMENTAL   TREES — their   variation    in   de'U^ee   and    kind — 

ASH-TREE — SCOTCH-FTR— HAWTHORN. 
FLOWERS — Ml  LTIPLE   ORIGIN   OF    MANY   KINDS — VARIATION   IN   CONSTITU- 
TIONAL  PECULIARITIES — KIND  OF  VARIATION. ROSES — SEVERAL  SPECIES 

CULTIVATED.  PANSY.  DAHLIA.  HYACINTH  —HISTORY      AND 

VARIATION  OP. 

The  Vine  (Vitis  vinifera). — The  best  authorities  consider  all  onr 
grapes  as  the  descendants  of  one  species  which  now  grows  wild  in 
w^estern  Asia,  which  grew  wild  during  the  Bronze  age  in  Italy/  and 
which  has  recently  been  found  fossil  in  a  tufaceous  deposit  in  the 
south  of  France.^  Some  authors,  however,  entertain  much  doubt 
about  the  single  parentage  of  our  cultivated  varieties,  owing  to  the 
number  of  semi- wild  forms  found  in  Southern  Europe,  especially  as 
described  by  Clemente^  in  a  forest  in  Spain;  but  as  the  grape  sows 
itself  freely  in  Southern  Europe,  and  as  several  of  the  chief  kinds 
transmit  their  characters  by  seed,*  whilst  others  are  extremely 
variable,  the  existence  of  many  different  escaped  forms  could  hardly 
fail  to  occur  in  countries  where  this  plant  has  been  cultivated  from 
the  remotest  antiquity.  That  the  vine  varies  much  when  propagated 
by  seed,  we  may  infer  from  the  largely  increased  number  of  varieties 
since  the  earlier  historical  records.     New  hot-house  varieties  are 


'   Heer,  '  Pflanzen  der  Pfahlbauten,'  Saporta  on    the    '  Tertiary  Plants    of 

186(3,  s.  28.  France.' 

2  Alph,   De  Candolle,    '  Geograph.  ^  GoJron,  '  De  I'Espece,'  torn.  ii.  p. 

But.,'     p.     872;     Dr.    A.    Targioni-  100. 

Tozzetti,  m  'Jour.  Hort.  Soc.,'  vol  ix.  •*  .'^ee  an  account  of  M.  Vibert's  ex- 

p.  133.     For  the  fossil  vine  found  by  perinients,  by  Alex.  Jordan,  in  '  Mein. 

l)r.     G.    Planchon,    see    '  Nat.   Hist.  de  I'Acad.  de  Lyon,'  torn.    ii.  18^)2,  p. 

Review,'   1865,  April,  p.    224.     'See  108/ 
also    the    valuable    works  of   M.  du 


Chap.  X.  VINES.  353 

produced  almost  every  year;  for  instance,'  a  golden-colonred 
variety  lias  been  recently  raised  in  England  from  a  black  grape 
without  the  aid  of  a  cross.  Van  Mons^  reared  a  multitude  ol 
varieties  from  the  seed  of  one  vine,  which  was  completely  separated 
from  all  others,  so  that  there  could  not,  at  least  in  this  generation, 
have  been  any  crossing,  and  the  seedlings  presented  "  les  analogue? 
de  toutes  les  sortes,"  and  differed  in  almost  eve>ry  possible  charactei 
both  in  the  fruits  and  foliage. 

The  cultivated  varieties  are  extremely  numerous ;  Count  Odart 
says  that  he  will  not  deny  that  there  may  exist  throughout  the 
world  700  or  800,  perhaps  even  1000  varieties,  but  not  a  third  of 
these  have  any  value.  In  the  catalogue  of  fruit  ciiltivated  in  the 
Horticultural  Gardens  of  London,  published  in  1842,  99  varieties 
are  enumerated.  Wherever  the  grape  is  grown  many  varieties 
occur :  Pallas  describes  24  in  the  Crimea,  and  Burnes  mentions  10 
in  Cabool.  The  classitication  of  the  varieties  has  much  perplexed 
writers,  and  Count  Odart  i  -  reduced  to  a  geographical  system ;  but 
I  will  not  enter  on  this  subject,  nor  on  the  many  and  great  dif- 
ferences between  the  varieties.  I  will  merely  specify  a  few  curious 
and  trifling  peculiarities,  iill  taken  from  Odart's  highly  esteemed 
work,'^  for  the  sake  of  showing  the  diversified  variability  of  this 
plant.  Simon  has  classed  grapes  into  two  main  divisions,  those 
with  downy  leaves,  and  those  with  smooth  leaves,  but  he  admits 
that  in  one  variety,  namely  the  Eebazo,  the  leaves  are  either  smooth, 
or  downy;  and  Odart  (p.  70)  states  that  some  varieties  have  the 
nerves  alone,  and  other  varieties  their  young  leaves,  downy,  whilst 
the  old  ones  are  smooth.  The  Pedro- Ximenes  grape  (Odart,  p.  397) 
presents  a  peculiarity  by  which  it  can  be  at  once  recognised  amongst 
a  host  of  other  varieties,  namely,  that  when  the  fruit  is  nearly  ripe 
the  nerves  of  the  leaves  or  even  the  whole  surface  becomes  yellow. 
The  Barbera  d'Asti  is  well  marked  by  several  characters  (p.  426), 
amongst  others,  "  by  some  of  the  leaves,  and  it  is  always  the  lowest 
on  the  branches,  suddenly  becoming  of  a  dark  red  colour."  Several 
authors  in  classifying  grapes  have  founded  their  main  divisions  on 
the  berries  being  either  round  or  oblong ;  and  Odart  admits  the 
value  of  this  character;  yet  there  is  one  variety,  the  Maccabeo 
(p.  71),  which  often  produces  small  round,  and  large  oblong,  berries 
in  the  same  bunch.  Certain  grapes  called  Nebbiolo  (p.  429)  present 
a  constant  character,  sufficient  for  their  recognition,  namely,  "  the 
slight  adherence  of  that  part  of  the  pulp  which  surrounds  the  seeds 
to  the  rest  of  the  berry,  when  cut  through  transversely."  A  Ehenish 
variety  is  mentioned  (p.  228)  which  likes  a  dry  soil ;  the  fruit  ripens 
well,  but  at  the  moment  of  maturity,  if  much  rain  falls,  the  berries 
are  apt  to  rot ;  on  the  other  hanil,  the  fruit  of  a  Swiss  variety  (p.  248) 
is  valued  for  well  sustaining   prolonged   humidity.      This  latter 


5  '  Gardener's   Chronicle,'  1864,  p.       p.  290. 
488.  '■  Odart,  '  Ampelograpliic  Univer- 

6'Arbres  Fruitiers,'  1836,  torn.  ii.      'selle,' 1849. 

24 


554  FiiuiTS :  Ckat.  X. 

variety  sprouts  late  in  tlie  spring,  yet  matures  its  fruit  early  ;  other 
varieties  (p.  362)  have  the  fault  of  being  too  much  excited  by  the 
April  sun,  and  in  consequence  suffer  from  frost.  A  Styrian  variety 
(p.  254)  has  brittle  foot-stalks,  so  that  the  clusters  of  fruit  are 
often  blown  off;  this  variety  is  said  to  be  particularly  attractive  to 
wasps  and  bees.  Other  varieties  have  tough  stalks,  which  resist 
the  wind.  Many  other  variable  characters  could  be  given,  but  the 
foregoing  facts  are  sufficient  to  show  in  how  many  small  structural 
and  constitutional  details  the  vine  varies.  During  the  vine  disease 
in  France  certain  old  groups  of  varieties  ^  have  suffered  far  more 
from  mildew  than  others.  Thus  "  the  group  of  Chasselas,  so  rich 
in  varieties,  did  not  afford  a  single  fortunate  exception ;"  certain 
other  groups  suffered  much  less ;  the  true  old  Burgundy,  for  instance, 
was  comparatively  free  from  disease,  and  the  Carminat  likewise 
resisted  the  attack.  The  American  vines,  which  belong  to  a  distinct 
species,  entirely  escaped  the  disease  in  France;  and  we  thus  see 
that  those  European  varieties  which'  best  resist  the  disease  must 
have  acquired  in  a  slight  degree  the  same  constitutional  peculiarities 
as  the  American  species. 

White  Mulberry  (Morus  oIba).—l  mention  this  plant  because  it 
has  varied  in  certain  characters,  namely,  in  the  texture  and  quality 
of  the  leaves,  fitting  them  to  serve  as  food  for  the  domesticated 
silkworm,  in  a  manner  not  observed  with  other  plants ;  but  this 
has  arisen  simply  from  such  variations  in  the  mulberry  having  been 
attended  to,  selected,  and  rendered  more  or  less  constant.  M.  de 
Quatrefages  ^  briefly  describes  six  kinds  cultivated  in  one  valley  in 
France :  of  these  the  amoumuso  produces  excellent  leaves,  but  is 
rapidly  being  abandoned  because  it  produces  much  fruit  mingled 
with  the  leaves:  the  cvdofino  yields  deeply  cut  leaves  of  the  finest 
quality,  but  not  in  great  quantity  :  the  daro  is  much  sought  for 
because  the  leaves  can  be  easily  collected :  lastly,  the  roso  bears 
strong  hardy  leaves,  produced  in  large  quantity,  but  with  the  one 
inconvenience,  that  they  are  best  adapted  for  the  worms  after  their 
fourth  moult.  MM.  Jacquemet-Bonnefont,  of  Lyon,  however,  remark 
in  their  catalogue  (1862)  that  two  sub- varieties  have  been  confounded 
under  the  name  of  the  roso,  one  having  leaves  too  thick  for  the 
caterpillars,  the  other  being  valuable  because  the  leaves  can  easily 
be  gathered  from  the  branches  without  the  bark  being  torn. 

In  India  the  mulberry  has  also  given  rise  to  many  varieties. 
The  Indian  form  is  thought  by  many  botanists  to  be  a  distinct 
species ;  but  as  Eoyle  remarks,^*^  "  so  many  varieties  have  been 
produced  by  cultivation  that  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain  whether  they 


^  M.  Bouchardat,  in  '  Comptes  Ren-  Annual     Report    on    the    Insects  of 

dus,'  Dec.  1st,  1851,  quoted  in  '  Gar-  Missouri,'  1872,  p.   63,  and  '  Fifth  Re- 

dener's    Chron.,'  1852,   p.    435.     See  port,'  1873,  p.  QQ. 
also  C.  V.    Riley   on  the  manner  in  ^  '  Etudes  sur  les  Maladies  actuelle.' 

which   some    few  of  the   varieties  of  du  Ver  a  Soie,'  1859,  p.  321. 
the  American  Labruscan  Vine  escape  '<*  '  Productive  Resources  of  India, 

Iho  attacks  of  the  Phylloxera: 'Fourth  p    130. 


Chap.  X.  ORANGE   GROUP.  •  355 

all  belong  to  one  species  ;"  they  a,re,  as  lie  adds,  nearly  as  numerous 
as  those  of  the  silkworm. 

The  Orange  Group. — We  here  meet  with  great  confusion  in  the 
specific  distinction  and  parentage  of  the  several  kinds.  Gallesio," 
who  almost  devoted  his  life-time  to  the  subject,  considers  that  there 
are  four  species,  namely,  sweet  and  bitter  oranges,  lemons,  and 
citrons,  each  of  which  has  given  rise  to  whole  groups  of  varieties, 
monsters,  and  supposed  hybrids.  One  high  authority  ^^  believes 
that  these  four  reputed  species  are  all  varieties  of  the  wild  Citrus 
medica,  but  that  the  shaddock  (^Citrus  decum,ana),\7h.\Qh  is  not  known 
in  a.  wild  state,  is  a  distinct  species ;  though  its  distinctness  is 
doubted  by  another  writer  "of  great  authority  on  such  matters," 
namely.  Dr.  Buchanan  Hamilton.  Alph.  De  Candolle,^^  on  the 
other  hand — and  there  cannot  be  a  more  capable  judge— advances 
what  he  considers  suiScient  evidence  of  the  orange  (he  doubts 
whether  the  bitter  and  sweet  kinds  are  specifically  distinct),  the 
lemon,  and  citron,  having  been  found  wild,  and  consequently  that 
they  are  distinct.  He  mentions  two  other  forms  cultivated  in  Japan 
and  Java,  which  he  ranks  undoubted  species ;  he  speaks  rather 
more  doubtfully  about  the  shaddock,  which  varies  much,  and  has 
not  been  found  wild ;  and  finally  he  considers  some  forms,  such  as 
Adam's  apple  and  the  bergamotte,  as  probably  hybrids. 

I  have  briefly  abstracted  these  opinions  for  the  sake  of  showing 
those  who  have  never  attended  to  such  subjects,  how  perplexing 
they  are.  It  would,  therefore,  be  useless  for  my  purpose  to  give  a 
sketch  of  the  conspicuous  differences  between  the  several  forms. 
Besides  the  ever-recurrent  difficulty  of  determining  whether  forms 
found  wild  are  truly  aboriginal  or  are  escaped  seedlings,  many  of 
the  forms,  which  must  be  ranked  as  varieties,  transmit  their 
characters  almost  perfectly  by  seed.  Sweet  and  bitter  oranges 
differ  in  no  important  respect  except* in  the  flavour  of  their  fruit, 
but  Gallesio"  is  most  emphatic  that  both  kinds  cau  be  propagated 
by  seed  with  absolute  certainty.  Consequently,  in  accordance  with 
his  simple  rule,  he  classes  them  as  distinct  species;  as  he  does 
sweet  and  bitter  almonds,  the  peach  and  nectarine,  &c.  He  admits, 
however,  that  the  soft-shelled  pine-tree  produces  not  only  soft- 
shelled  but  some  hard-shelled  seedlings,  so  that  a  little  greater 
force  in  the  power  of  inheritance  would,  according  to  this  rule, 
raise  a  soft-shelled  pine-tree  into  the  dignity  of  an  aboriginally 
created  species.     The  positive  assertion  made  by  Macfayden  ^^  that 


"'Traits       du      Citrus,'       1811.  12  j^jj.  gentham,  '  Review  of  Dr.  A. 

'  Teoria  della  Riproduzione  Vegetale,'  Targioni-Tozzetti,  '  Journal  of  Hurt. 

1816.     1    quote    chiefly    from    tliis  Soc.,'  vol.  ix.  p.  133. 

second  work.     In  1839  Gallesio  pub-  ^*  '  Geograph.  But.,'  p.  863. 

lished  in  folio  *  Gli  Agrumi  dei  Giard.  ^*  '  Teoria  della  Riproduzione,*  pp. 

Bot.  di  Firenze,'  in  which  he  gives  a  52-57. 

curious     diagram    of    the    supposed  *^  Hooker's  '  Bot.   Misc.,'   vol.  i   p 

relationship  of  all  the  forms.  302;  v^  1.  ii.  p   111. 


356  FEUITS :  Chap.  X. 

the  pips  of  sweet  oranges  produced  in  Jamaica,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  soil  in  which  they  are  sown,  either  sweet  or  bitter 
oranges,  is  probably  an  error ;  for  M.  Alph.  De  Candolle  informs 
me  that  since  the  publication  of  his  great  work  he  has  received 
accounts  from  Guiana,  the  Antilles,  and  Mauritius,  that  in  these 
countries  sweet  oranges  faithfully  transmit  their  character.  Gallesio 
found  that  the  willow-leafed  and  the  Little  China  oranges  re- 
produced their  proper  leaves  and  fruit;  but  the  seedlings  were 
not  quite  equal  in  merit  to  their  parents.  The  red-fleshed  orange, 
on  the  other  hand,  fails  to  reproduce  itself.  Gallesio  also  observed 
that  the  seeds  of  several  other  singular  varieties  all  reproduced 
trees  having  a  peculiar  physiognomy,  partly  resembling  their 
parent-forms.  I  can  adduce  another  case :  the  myrtle  leaved 
orange  is  ranked  by  all  authors  as  a  variety,  but  is  very  distinct  in 
general  aspect :  in  my  father's  greenhouse,  during  many  years,  it 
rarely  yielded  any  fruit,  but  a,t  last  produced  one ;  and  a  tree  thus 
raised  was  identical  with  the  parent-form. 

Another  and  more  serious  difficulty  in  determining  the  rank  of 
the  several  forms  is  that,  according  to  Galiesio,^*^  they  largely 
intercross  without  artificial  aid;  thus  he  positively  states  that 
seeds  taken  from  lemon-trees  ((7.  lemonum)  growing  mingled  with 
the  citron  (C  medic  i),  which  is  generally  considered  as  a  distinct 
species,  produced  a  graduated  series  of  varieties  between  these  two 
forms.  Again,  an  Adam's  apple  was  produced  from  the  seed  of  a 
sweet  orange,  which  grew  close  to  lemons  and  citrons.  But  such 
facts  hardly  aid  us  in  determining  whether  to  rank  these  forms  as 
species  or  varieties ;  for  it  is  now  known  that  nndoubted  species  of 
Verbascum,  Cistus,  Primula,  Sahx,  &c.,  frequently  cross  in  a  state 
of  nature.  If  indeed  it  were  proved  that  plants  of  the  orange  tribe 
raised  from  these  crosses  were  even  partially  sterile,  it  would  be  a 
strong  argument  in  favour  of  their  rank  as  species.  Gallesio 
asserts  that  this  is  the  case ;  but  he  does  not  distinguish  between 
sterility  from  hybridism  and  from  the  effects  of  culture ;  and  he 
almost  destroys  the  force  of  this  statement  by  another,^^  namely, 
that  when  he  impregnated  the  flowers  of  the  common  orange  with 
the  pollen  taken  from  undoubted  varieties  of  the  orange,  monstrous 
fruits  were  produced,  which  included  "little  pulp,  and  had  no 
seeds,  or  imperfect  seeds." 

In  this  tribe  of  plants  we  meet  with  instances  of  two  highly 
remarkable  facts  in  vegetable  physiology :  Gallesio  ^^  impregnated 
an  orange  with  pollen  from  a  lemon,  and  the  fruit  borne  on  the 
mother  tree  had  a  raised  stripe  of  peel  like  that  of  a  lemon  both  in 
colour  and  taste,  but  the  pulp  was  like  that  of  an  orange  and 
included  only  imperfect  seeds.  The  possibility  of  pollen  fi-om  one 
variety  or  species  directly  aifecting  the  fruit  produced  by  another 
variety  of  species,  is  a  subject  which  I  shall  fully  discuss  in  the 
following  chapter. 


'®  '  Teoria  della  Riproduzione,'   p.  53. 

"  Gallesio,  'Tcovia  della  Riproduzione,'  p.  69.  »°  Ibid.  p.  67. 


Chap.  X.  PEACH   AND   NECTARINE.  357 

The  second  remarkable  fact  is,  that  two  supposed  hybrids  ^^ 
(for  their  hybrid  nature  was  not  ascertained),  between  an  orange 
and  either  a  lemon  or  citron,  produced  on  the  same  tree  leaves, 
f.owers,  and  fruit  of  both  pure  parent-forms,  as  well  as  of  a  mixed 
or  crossed  nature.  A  bud  taken  from  any  one  of  the  branches  and 
grafted  on  another  tree  produces  either  one  of  the  pure  kinds  or  a 
capricious  tree  reproducing  the  three  kinds.  Whether  the  sweet 
lemon,  which  includes  within  the  same  fruit  segments  of  differently 
flavoured  pulp,^"  is  an  analogous  case,  I  know  not.  But  to  this 
subject  1  shall  have  to  recur. 

I  will  conclude  by  giving  from  A.  Eisso^^  a  short  account  of  a 
very  singular  variety  of  the  common  orange.  It  is  the  "  citiua 
aurantium  frudu  variahili"  which  on  the  young  shoots  jDroduces 
rounded-oval  leaves  spotted  with  yellow,  borne  on  petioles  with 
heart-shaped  wings ;  when  these  leaves  fall  ofT,  they  are  succeeded 
by  longer  and  narrower  leaves,  with  undulated  margins,  of  a  pale- 
green  colour  embroidered  witli  yellow,  borne  on  footstalks  without 
wings.  The  fruit  whilst  young  is  pear-shaped,  yellow,  longitu- 
dinally striated,  and  sweet;  but  as  it  ripens,  it  becomes  spherical, 
of  a  reddish-yellow,  and  bitter. 

Peach  and  Is'ecfarine  {Aviygdahis  persica).  The  best  authorities 
are  nearly  unanimous  that  the  peach  has  never  been  found  wild. 
It  was  introduced  from  Persia  into  Europe  a  little  before  the 
Christian  era,  and  at  this  period  few  varieties  existed.  Alph.  De 
Candolle,-^  from  the  fact  of  the  peach  not  having  spread  from  Persia 
at  an  earlier  period,  and  from  its  not  having  pure  Sanscrit  or 
Hebrew  names,  believes  that  it  is  not  an  aboriginal  of  Western 
Asia,  but  came  from  the  terra  incognita  of  China.  The  supposition, 
however,  that  the  peach  is  a  modified  almond  which  acquired  its 
present  character  at  a  comparatively  late  period,  would,  I  presume, 
account  for  these  facts  ;  on  the  same  principle  that  the  nectarine,  the 
offspring  of  the  peach,  has  few  native  names,  and  became  known  in 
Europe  at  a  still  later  period. 

Andrew  Knight,-^  from  finding  that  a  seedling-tree,  raised  from  a 
sweet  almond  fertilised  by  the  pollen  of  a  peach,  yielded  fruit  quite 
like  that  of  a  peach,  suspected  that  the  peach-tree  is  a  modified 
almond  ;  and  in  this  he  has  been  followed  by  various  authors  "^  A 
first-rate  peach,  almost  globular  in  shape,  formed  of  soft  and  sweet 


'3  Gallesio,    'Teoria    della    Ripro-  '•»*  Gardener's  Chronicle,' 1856,  p. 

•luzioTie,'  pp.  75,  76.  532.     A  writer,  it  may  be  presumed 

2"  'Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1841,' p.  Dr.  Lindley,  remarks  on  the  perfect 

613.  series  which  may  be  formed  between 

2*  'Annales  du  Museum,'  torn.  xx.  the  almond  and  the  peach.     Another 

p.  188.  high   authority,  Mr.  Rivers,  who  has 

2^  'Geograph.  Bot.,' p.  882.  had  such   wide  experience,    stronglv 

-^  *  Transactions  of  Hort.  Soc.,'  vol.  suspects  (*  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  I860, 

ili.  p.  1,  and  vol.  iv.  p.  396,  and   note  p.  27)  tliat  peaches,  if  left  to  a  state 

to  p.   370.     A    coloured    drawing    is  of  nature,  would  in  the  course  of  time 

given  of  this  hybrid.  retrograde  into  thick-fleshcd  almonds. 


358 


FEUITS  : 


CHAt.X. 


pulp,  STirroundiBg  a  hard,  miich  furrowed,  and  slightly  flattened 
stone,  certainly  differs  greatly  from  an  almond,  with  its  soft, 
slightly  furrowed,  much  flattened,  and  elongated  stone,  protected 


Fig.  42. — Peach  and  Almond  Stories,  of  natural  size,  viewed  edgewaj's.  1.  Common  English 
peach.  2.  Double,  cnm»oii-flov\ered»  Lhinese  Peach  3.  Chiutse  Houey  Peach.  4. 
English  Almond.  5.  Batcelnna  Almond.  6.  ilalaga  Almond.  7.  Soft-shelled  French 
Almond.    8.  Sniyima  Almond. 

by  a  tough,  greenish  layer  of  bitter  flesh.  Mr.  Bentham  ^^  has  par- 
ticularly called  attention  to  the  stone  of  the  almond  being  so  much 
more  flattened  than  that  of  the  peach.    But  in  the  several  yarieties 


'■^^  '  Journal  of  Hort.  Soc,  vol.  ix,  p.  168- 


Chap.  X.  PEACH  AND   NECTAEINE.  359 

of  the  almond,  the  stone  differs  greatly  in  the  degree  to  which 
it  is  compressed,  in  size,  shape,  strength,  and  in  the  depth  of  the 
furrows,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  accompanying  drawing  (Nqs.  4 
to  8)  of  such  kinds  as  I  have  been  able  to  collect.  With  peach- 
stones  also  (Nos.  1  to  3)  the  degree  of  compression  and  elongation  is 
seen  to  vary ;  so  that  the  stone  of  the  Chinese  Honey-peach  (fig.  3) 
is  much  more  elongated  and  compressed  than  that  of  the  (No.  8) 
Smyrna  almond.  Mr.  Elvers,  of  Pawbridge worth,  to  whom  I  am 
indebted  for  some  of  the  specimens  above  figured,  and  who  has  had 
such  great  horticultural  experience,  has  called  my  attention  to 
several  varieties  which  connect  the  almond  and  the  peach.  In 
France  there  is  a  variety  called  the  Peach-Almond,  which  Mr. 
Elvers  formerly  cultivated,  and  which  is  correctly  described  in  a 
French  catalogue  as  being  oval  and  swollen,  with  the  aspect  of  a 
peach,  including  a  hard  stone  surrounded  by  a  fleshy  covering, 
which  is  sometimes  eatable.^^  A  remarkable  statement  by  M. 
Luizet  has  recently  appeared  in  the  '  Eevue  Horticole,'  ^^  namely, 
that  a  Peach-almond,  grafted  on  a  peach,  bore,  during  1863  and 
1864,  almonds  alone,  but  in  1865  bore  six  peaches  and  no  almonds. 
M.  Carriere,  in  commenting  on  this  fact,  cites  the  case  of  a  double- 
flowered  almond  wliich,  after  producing  during  several  years  almonds, 
suddenly  bore  for  two  years  in  succession  spherical  fleshy  peach- 
like fruits,  bat  in  1865  reverted  to  its  former  state  and  produced 
large  almonds. 

Again,  as  I  hear  from  Mr.  Elvers,  the  double-flowering  Chinese 
peaches  resemble  almonds  in  their  manner  of  growth  and  in  their 
flowers ;  the  fruit  is  much  elongated  and  flattened,  with  the  flesh 
both  bitter  and  sweet,  but  not  uneatable,  and  it  is  said  to  be  of 
better  quality  in  China.  From  this  stage  one  small  step  leads  us 
to  such  inferior  peaches  as  are  occasionally  raised  from  seed.  For 
instance,  Mr.  Elvers  sowed  a  number  of  peach-stones  imported  from 
the  United  States,  where  they  are  collected  for  raising  stocks,  and 
some  of  the  trees  raised  by  him  produced  peaches  which  were  very 
like  almonds  in  appearance,  being  small  and  hard,  with  the  pulp 
not  softening  till  very  late  in  the  autumn.  Van  Mons  '^"^  also  states 
that  he  once  raised  from  a  peach-stone  a  peach  having  the  aspect 
of  a  wild  tree,  with  fruit  like  that  of  the  almond.  From  inferior 
peaches,  such  as  these  just  described,  we  may  pass  by  small  transi- 
tions, through  clingstones  of  poor  quality,  to  our  best  and  most 
melting  kinds.  From  this  gradation,  from  the  cases  of  sudden  varia- 
tion above  recorded,  and  from  the  fact  that  the  peach  has  not  been 
found  wild,  it  seems  to  me  by   far  the  most  probable  view,  that 

•*  Whether  this  is  the  same  variety  produces  during  successive  years  very 

as    one    lately     mentioned     ('  Gard.  different  kinds  of  fruit. 

Chron.'  1865,  p.  1154)  by  M.  Carriere  27  Quoted  in  'Gard.  Chroa.'  1866, 

under  the  name  of  persica  intermedia^  p.  800. 

1  know  not;  this  variety  is  said  to  be  ^^  Quoted    in  'Journal    dc  la   Soc 

.nterraediate  in  nearly  all  its  charac-  Imp.  d'Horticulture,'  1855,  p.  238. 
ters  between  the  almond  and  peach  ;  it 


560  FKUITS :  CiiAP.  X 

the  peach  is  the  descendant  of  the  ahiiond,  improved  and  modified 
in  a  marvellous  manner. 

One  fact,  however,  is  opposed  to  this  conclnsion.  A  hybrid, 
raised  by  Knight  from  the  sweet  almond  by  the  pollen  of  the  peach, 
produced  flowers  with  little  or  no  pollen,  yet  bore  fruit,  having 
been  apparently  fertilised  by  a  neighbouring  nectarine.  Another 
hybrid,  from  a  sweet  almond  by  the  pollen  of  a  nectarine,  produced 
during  the  first  three  years  imperfect  blossoms,  but  afterwards 
perfect  flowers  with  an  abundance  of  pollen.  If  this  slight  degree 
of  sterility  cannot  be  accounted  for  by  the  youth  of  the  trees  (and 
this  often  causes  lessened  fertility),  or  by  the  monstrous  state  of 
the  flowers,  or  by  the  conditions  to  which  the  trees  were  exposed, 
these  two  cases  would  afford  a  good  argument  against  the  peach 
being  the  descendant  of  the  almond. 

Whether  or  not  the  peach  has  proceeded  from  the  almond,  it 
has  certainly  given  rise  to  nectarines,  or  smooth  peaches,  as  they 
are  called  by  the  French.  Most  of  the  varieties,  both  of  the  peach 
and  nectarine,  reproduce  themselves  truly  by  seed.  Gallesio  ^'^  says 
he  has  verified  this  with  respect  to  eight  races  of  the  peach. 
Mr.  Elvers  ^°  has  given  some  striking  instances  from  his  own 
experience,  and  it  is  notorious  that  good  peaches  are  constantly 
raised  in  North  America  from  seed.  Many  of  the  American  sub- 
varieties  come  true  or  nearly  true  to  their  kind,  such  as  the  white- 
blossom,  several  of  the  yellow-fruited  freestone  jDeaches,  the  blood 
clingstone,  the  heath,  and  the  lemon  clingstone.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  clingstone  peach  has  been  known  to  give  rise  to  a  freestone.^^ 
In  England  it  has  been  noticed  that  seedlings  inherit  from  their 
parents  flowers  of  the  same  size  and  colour.  Some  characters, 
however,  contrary  to  what  might  have  been  expected,  often  are 
not  inherited ;  such  as  the  presence  and  form  of  the  glands 
-on  the  leaves. ^^  With  respect  to  nectarines,  both  cling  and  free- 
stones are  known  in  North  America  to  reproduce  themselves  by 
seed.^^  In  England  the  new  white  nectarine  was  a  seedling  of  the 
old  white,  and  Mr.  Elvers  ^^  has  recorded  several  similar  cases. 
From  this  strong  tendency  to  inheritance,  which  both  peach  and 
nectarine  trees  exhibit, — from  certain  slight  constitutional  differ- 
ences^^ in  their  nature, — and  from  the  great  difference  in  their 
fruit  both  in  appearance  and  flavour,  it  is  not  surprising,  notwith- 
standing that  the  trees  differ  in  no  other  respects  and  cannot  even 


2^  '  Teoria  della  Riproduzione  Vege-  228.     For  similar  cases  in  France  sec 

tale,'  1816,  p.  86.  Godron,  '  De  rEspece,*  torn.  ii.  p.  97. 

30  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1862,  p.  ^3  Brickell's    '  Nat.     Hist,    of    K 

1195.  Carolina,'    p.     102,    and    Downing's 

^1  Mr.  Rivers,  '  Gardener's  Chron.,'  '  Fruit  Trees,'  p.  505. 

1859,  p.  774.  ^^  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1862,  p. 

32   Downing,  'The    Fruits  ofAme-  1196. 

rica,'  1845,   pp.  475,  489,  492,   494,  ^^  The  peach  and  nectarine  do  not 

496.     See  also   F.  Michaux,  'Travels  succeed  equally  well  in  the  same  soil . 

in    N.  America'  (Eng.    translat.),   p.  see  Lindley's  '  Horticulture,'  p.  351. 


Chap.  X.  PEACH   AND   NECTARINE.  301 

be  distinguished,  as  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  Eivcrs,  whilst  yonng, 
that  they  have  been  ranked  by  some  authors  as  specifically  distinct. 
Gallesio  does  not  doubt  that  they  are  distinct ;  even  Alph.  De  Candolle 
does  not  appear  perfectly  assured  of  their  specific  identity :  aud  an 
eminent  botanist  has  quite  recently  ^"  maintained  that  the  nectarine 
"  probably  constitutes  a  distinct  species." 

Hence  it  may  be  worth  while  to  give  all  the  evidence  on  tlie 
origin  of  the  nectarine.  The  facts  in  themselves  are  curious,  and 
will  hereafter  have  to  be  referred  to  when  the  important  subject 
of  bud- variation  is  discussed.  It  is  asserted  ^^  that  the  Boston 
nectarine  was  produced  from  a  peach-stone,  and  this  nectarine 
reproduced  itself  by  seed.^^  Mr.  Elvers  states  ^^  that  from  stones 
of  three  distinct  varieties  of  the  peach  he  raised  three  varieties 
of  nectarine;  and  in  one  of  these  cases  no  nectarine  grew  near 
the  parent  peach-tree.  In  another  instance  Mr.  Elvers  raised  a 
nectarine  from  a  peach,  and  in  the  succeeding  generation  another 
nectarine  from  this  nectarine.''"  Other  such  instances  have  been 
communicated  to  me,  but  they  need  not  be  given.  Of  the  converse 
case,  namely,  of  nectarine -stones  yielding  peach-trees  (both  free  and 
clingstones),  we  have  six  undoubted  instances  recorded  by  ]\Jr. 
Elvers ;  and  in  two  of  these  instances  the  parent  nectarines  had 
been  seedlings  from  other  nectarines.''^ 

With  respect  to  the  more  curious  case  of  full-grown  peach-trees 
suddenly  producing  nectarines  by  bud-variation  (or  sports  as  they 
are  called  by  gardeners),  the  evidence  is  superabundant ;  there  is 
also  good  evidence  of  the  same  tree  jDroducing  both  peaches  and  necta- 
rines, or  half-and-half  fruit ;  by  this  term  I  mean  a  fruit  with  the 
one-half  a  perfect  peach,  and  the  other  half  a  perfect  nectarine. 

Peter  Collinson  in  1741  recorded  the  first  case  of  a  peach-tree 
producing  a  nectarine,''^  and  in  1766  he  added  two  other  instances. 
In  the  same  work,  the  editor,  Sir  J.  E.  Smith,  describes  the  more 
remarkable  case  of  a  tree  in  Norfolk  which  usually  bore  both 
perfect  nectarines  and  perfect  peaches;  but  during  two  seasons 
some  of  the  fruit  were  half  and  half  in  nature. 

Mr.  Salisbury  in  1808 ''•^  records  six  other  cases  of  peach-trees 
producing  nectarines.  Three  of  the  varieties  are  named;  viz.,  the 
Alberge,  Belle  Chevreuse,  and  Eoyal  George.  This  latter  tree  seldom 
failed  to  produce  both  kinds  of  fruit.  He  gives  another  case  of 
a  half-and-half  fruit. 

At  Eadford  in  Devonshire'*'^  a  clingstone  peach,  purchased  as 

8«  Godron,  <  De  I'Espece,' torn,  ii.,  Chron.,' 1859,  p.  774,  1862,  p.  1195; 

1859,  p.  97.  1865,  p.  1059  ;  and  '  Journal  of  Hort.,' 

3^  'Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,'  vol.  vi.  p.  1866,  p.  102. 

394.  ■*-  '  Correspondence     of    Linnaeus/ 

'8  Downing's  'Fruit  Trees,'  p.  502.  1821,  pp.  7,  8,  70. 

'^  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1862,  p.  ^^  '  Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,' vol.  i.  p. 

1195.  103. 

*"  *  Journal  of  Horticulture,'  Feb.  "'■*  Loudon's      '  Gardener's      Mag ,' 

5th,  1866,  p.  102.  1826,  voL  i.  p.  471. 

■"  Mr.     Rivers,     in     '  Gardener's 


362  FKUITS.  Chap.  X. 

the  Chancellor,  was  planted  in  1815,  and  in  1824,  after  haying 
previously  produced  peaches  alone,  bore  on  one  branch  twelve 
nectarines;  in  1825  the  same  branch  yielded  twenty-six  nectarines, 
and  in  1826  thirty-six  nectarines,  together  with  eighteen  peaches. 
One  of  the  peaches  was  almost  as  smooth  on  one  side  as  a  nectarine. 
The  nectarines  were  as  dark  as,  but  smaller  than,  the  Elruge. 

At  Beccles  a  Eoyal  George  peach  *^  produced  a  fruit,  "  three 
parts  of  it  being  peach  and  one  part  nectarine,  quite  distinct  in 
api^earance  as  well  as  in  flavour."  The  lines  of  division  were 
longitudinal,  as  represented  in  the  woodcut,  A  nectarine- tree 
grew  five  yards  from  this  tree. 

Professor  Chapman  states  '^^  that  he  has  often  seen  in  Virginia 
very  old  peach-trees  bearing  nectarines. 

A  writer  in  the  'Gardener's  Chronicle'  says  that  a  peach-tree 
planted  fifteen  years  previously*'^  produced  this  year  a  nectarine 
between  two  peaches  ;  a  nectarine-tree  grew  close  by. 

In  1844*^  a  Vanguard  peach-tree  produced,  in  the  midst  of  its 
ordinary  fruit,  a  single  red  Eoman  nectarine. 

Mr.  Calver  is  stated  ^^  to  have  raised  in  the  United  States 
a  seedling  peach  which  produced  a  mixed  crop  of  both  peaches  and 
nectarines. 

Near  Dorking  ^®  a  branch  of  the  Teton  de  Venus  peach,  which 
reproduces  itself  truly  by  seed,^^  bore  its  own  fruit  "  so  remarkable 
for  its  prominent  point,  and  a  nectarine  rather  smaller  but  well 
formed  and  quite  round." 

The  previous  cases  all  refer  to  peaches  suddenly  producing 
nectarines,  but  at  Carclew°^  the  unique  case  occurred,  of  a  nectarine- 
tree,  raised  twenty  years  before  from  seed  and  never  grafted, 
producing  a  fruit  half  peach  and  half  nectarine ;  subsequently  bore 
a  perfect  peach. 

To  sum  up  the  foregoing  facts;  we  have  excellent  evidence  of 
peach-stones  producing  nectarine-trees,  and  of  nectarine-stones 
producing  peach-trees, — of  the  same  tree-bearing  peaches  and 
nectarines, — of  peach-trees  suddenly  producing  by  bud-variation 
nectarines  (such  nectarines  reproducing  nectarines  by  seed),  as 
well  as  fruit  in  part  nectarine  and  in  part  peach, — and,  lastly,  of 
one  nectarine-tree  first  bearing  half-and-half  fruit,  and  subsequently 
true  peaches.  As  the  peach  came  into  existence  before  the  nectarine, 
it  might  have  been  expected  from  the  law  of  reversion  that 
nectarines  would  have  given  birth  by  bud-variation  or  by  seed 
to  peaches,  oftener  than  peaches  to  nectarines ;  but  this  is  by  no 
means  the  case. 

"Loudon's,      'Gardener's     Mag.,'  *^  '  Phytologist,' vol.  it.  p.  299. 

1828,  p.  53.  5«  'Gardener's    Chron.,'     1856,  p. 

*6  Ibid.,  1830,  p.  597.  531. 

*''  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1841,  p.  ^^  Godron,  '  De  I'Espece,'  torn.  ii.  p. 

617.  97. 

<«  'Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1844,  p.  "'Gardener's    Chron.,'    1856,    p 

589.  531, 


Chap.  X.  PEACH  AND   NECTAKINE.  363 

Two  explanations  have  been  suggested  to  account  for  theso 
conversions.  First,  that  the  parent  trees  have  been  in  every  case 
hybrids  ^^  between  the  peach  and  nectarine,  and  have  reverted 
by  bud-variation  or  by  seed  to  one  of  their  j)ure  parent  forms. 
This  view  in  itself  is  not  very  improbable ;  for  the  Mountaineer 
peach,  which  was  raised  by  Knight  from  the  red  nutmeg-peach 
by  pollen  of  the  violette  hative  nectarine,'^*  produces  peaches,  but 
these  are  said  sometimes  to  partake  of  the  smoothness  and  flavour 
of  the  nectarine.  But  let  it  be  observed  that  in  the  previous  list 
no  less  than  six  well-known  varieties  and  several  unnamed  varieties 
of  the  peach  have  once  suddenly  produced  perfect  nectarines  by 
bud  variation :  and  it  would  be  an  extremely  rash  supposition 
that  all  these  varieties  of  the  peach,  which  have  been  cultivated 
for  years  in  many  districts,  and  which  show  not  a  vestige  of 
a  mixed  parentage,  are,  nevertheless,  hybrids.  A  t-econd  explana- 
tion is,  that  the  fruit  of  the  peach  has  been  directly  affected  by  the 
pollen  of  the  nectarine  :  although  this  certainly  is  possible,  it 
cannot  here  apply;  for  we  have  not  a  shadow  of  evidence  that 
a  branch  which  has  borne  fruit  directly  affected  by  foreign  pollen 
is  so  profoundly  modified  as  afterwards  to  produce  buds  which 
continue  to  yield  fruit  of  the  new  and  modified  form.  Now  it 
is  known  that  when  a  bud  on  a  peach-tree  has  once  borne  a  nectarine 
the  same  branch  has  in  several  instances  gone  on  during  successive 
years  producing  nectarines.  The  Carclew  nectarine,  on  the  other 
hand,  first  produced  half-and-half  fruit,  and  subsequently  pure 
peaches.  Hence  we  may  confidently  accept  the  common  view  that 
the  nectarine  is  a  variety  of  the  peach,  which  may  be  produced 
either  by  bud-variation  or  from  seed.  In  the  following  chapter 
many  analogous  cases  of  bud-variafcion  will  be  given. 

The  varieties  of  the  peach  and  the  nectarine  run  in  parallel  lines. 
In  both  classes  the  kinds  differ  from  each  other  in  the  flesh  of  the 
fruit  being  white,  red,  or  yellow ;  in  being  clingstones  or  freestones ; 
in  the  flowers  being  large  or  small,  with  certain  other  characteristic 
differences ;  and  in  the  leaves  being  serrated  without  glands, 
or  crenated  and  furnished  with  globose  or  reniform  glands.^"  We 
can  hardly  account  for  this  parallelism  by  supposing  that  each 
variety  of  the  nectarine  is  descended  from  a  corresponding  variety 
of  the  peach ;  for  though  our  nectarines  are  certainly  the  descend- 
ants of  several  kinds  of  peaches,  yet  a  large  number  are  the 
descendants  of  other  nectarines,  and  they  vary  so  much  when 
thus  rejoroduced  that  we  can  scarcely  admit  the  above  explanation. 

The  varieties  of  the  peach  have  largely  increased  in  number 
since  the  Christian  era,  when  from  two  to  five  varieties  were 
known ;  ^^  and  the  nectarine  was  unknown.     At  the  jjresent  time, 

53  Alph.  De  Candolle,  '  Geograph.  Hort.  Soc.,'  1&42,  p.  105. 

Bot.,  p.  886-.  ^6  Dr.  A.  Targioni-Tozzetti,  '  Joiir- 

^*  Thompson,  in  Loudon's  'Ency-  nal  Hort.  See.,' vol.  ix.  p.  167.     Alph. 

clop,  of  Gardening,' p.  911.  de    Candolle,     'Geograph.    Bot.,'     p, 


65    ( 


Catalogue  of  Fruit  in  Garden  of       885. 


36i  FRUITS :  CuAP.  X. 

besides  many  varieties  said  to  exist  in  China,  Downing  describes, 
in  the  United  States,  seventy-nine  native  and  imported  varieties 
of  the  peach ;  and  a  few  years  ago  Lindley"  enumerated  oue 
hundred  and  sixty-four  varieties  of  the  peach  and  nectarine  grown 
in  England.  I  have  ah*eady  indicated  the  chief  points  of  difference 
between  the  several  varieties.  Nectai-ines,  even  when  produced 
from  distinct  kinds  of  peaches,  always  possess  their  own  peculiar 
flavour,  and  are  smooth  and  small.  Clingstone  and  freestone 
peaches,  which  differ  in  the  ripe  flesh  either  firmly  adhering  to 
the  stone,  or  easily  separating  from  it,  also  differ  in  the  character 
of  the  stone  itself;  that  of  the  freestones  or  melters  being  more 
deeply  fissured,  with  the  sides  of  the  fissures  smoother  than 
in  clingstones.  In  the  various  kinds  the  flowers  differ  not  only 
in  size,  but  in  the  larger  flowers  the  petals  are  differently  shaped, 
more  imbricated,  generally  red  in  the  centre  and  j.^le  towards 
the  margin :  whereas  in  the  smaller  flowers  the  margin  of  the 
petal  are  usually  more  darkly  coloured.  One  variety  has  nearly 
white  flowers.  The  leaves  are  more  or  less  serrated,  and  are  either 
destitute  of  glands,  or  ha\e  globose  or  reniform  glands  ;^*^  and  some 
few  peaches,  such  as  the  Brugnen,  bear  on  the  same  tree  both 
globular  and  kidney-shaped  glands.^^  According  to  Eobertson '^'^ 
the  trees  with  glandular  leaves  are  liable  to  blister,  but  not  in  any 
great  degree  to  mildew ;  whilst  the  non-glandular  trees  are  more 
subject  to  curl,  to  mildew,  and  to  the  attacks  of  aphides.  The 
varieties  differ  in  the  period  of  their  maturity,  in  the  fruit  keeping 
well,  and  in  hardiness, — the  latter  circumstance  being  especially 
attended  to  in  the  United  States.  Certain  varieties,  such  as  the 
Bellegarde,  stand  forcing  in  hot-houses  better  than  other  varieties. 
The  flat-peach  of  China  is  the  most  remarkable  of  all  the  varieties , 
it  is  so  much  depressed  towards  the  summit,  that  the  stone  is  here 
covered  only  by  roughened  skin  and  not  by  a  fleshy  la.yer.^^ 
Another  Chinese  variety,  called  the  Honey-peach,  is  remarkable 
from  the  fruit  terminating  in  a  long  sharp  point;  its  leaves  are 
glandless  and  widely  dentate.^^  rj j^^  Emperor  of  Eussia  peach 
is  a  third  singular  variety,  having  dee])ly  double-serrated  leaves ; 
the  fruit  is  deeply  cleft  with  one-half  projecting  considerably 
beyond  the  other:  it  originated  in  America,  and  its  seedlings 
inherit  similiar  leaves.*^^ 

The  peach  has  also  produced  in  China  a  small  class  of  trees 
valued  for  ornament,  namely  the  double-flowered;  of  these,  five 

"  'Transaot.  Hoi't.  Soc.,'  vol.  V.  p.  1865,    p.    271,  to   same  effect.     Also 

554.  See  also  Carriere, '  Description  et  '  Journal  of  Horticulture,'  Sept.  26th, 

Class,  des  Varietes  de  Fechers.'  1865,  p.  254. 

58  '  Loudon's  '  Encyclop.  of  Garden-  ^^  'Transact.  Hort.  Soc'  vol.  iv.  p. 

ing,'  p.  907.  512. 

5»  M.  Carriere,  in'Gard.   Chron.,'  ^^  'Journal  of  Horticulture,' Sept. 

1865,  p.  1154.  8th,  1853,  p.  188. 

60  'Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,'  vol.  iii.  "  'Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,'  vol.  vi. 

p.  332.  Sec  also  '  Gardener's  Chronicle/  p.  412. 


Chap.  X.  APRICOTS.  3()5 

varieties  are  now  known  in  England,  varying  from  pnre  wliite^ 
through  rose,  to  intense  crimson.*^^  One  of  these  varieties,  called 
the  camellia-flowered,  bears  flowers  above  2i  inches  in  diameter, 
whilst  those  of  the  fruit-bearing  kinds  do  not  at  most  exceed  1? 
inch  in  diameter.  The  flowers  of  the  double-flowered  peaches  have 
the  singular  property '^^  of  frequently  producing  double  or  treble 
fruit.  Finally,  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  the  peach  is  an 
almond  profoundly  modified;  but  whatever  its  origin  may  have 
been,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  has  yielded  during  the  last 
eighteen  centuries  many  varieties,  some  of  them  strongly  charac- 
terised, belonging  both  to  the  nectarine  and  peach  form. 

Apricot  (^Fiunus  urmeniaca). — It  is  commonly  admitted  that  this 
tree  is  descended  from  a  single  species,  now  found  wild  in  the 
Caucasian  region.^*^  On  this  view  the  varieties  deserve  notice, 
because  they  illustrate  difierences  supposed  by  some  botanists  to 
be  of  specific  value  in  the  almond  and  plum.  The  best  monograph 
on  the  apricot  is  by  Mr.  Thompson/^  who  describes  seventeen 
varieties.  We  have  seen  that  peaches  and  nectarines  vary  in  a 
strictly  joarallel  manner ;  and  in  the  apricot,  which  forms  a  closely 
allied  genus,  we  again  meet  with  variations  analogous  to  those  of 
the  peach,  as  well  as  to  those  of  the  plum.  The  varieties  differ 
considerably  in  the  shape  of  their  Jeaves,  which  are  either  serrated 
or  crenated,  sometimes  with  ear  like  appendages  at  their  bases, 
and  sometimes  with  glands  on  the  petioles.  The  flowers  are 
generally  alike,  but  are  small  in  the  Masculine.  The  fruit  varies 
much  in  size,  shape,  and  in  having  the  suture  little  pronounced 
or  absent ;  in  the  skin  being  smooth,  or  downy,  as  in  the  orange- 
apricot;  and  in  the  flesh  clinging  to  the  stone,  as  in  the  last- 
mentioned  kind,  or  in  readily  separating  from  it,  as  in  the 
Turkey -apricot.  In  all  these  differences  we  see  the  closest  analogy 
with  the  varieties  of  the  peach  and  nectarine.  In  the  stone  we 
have  more  important  differences,  and  these  in  the  case  of  the  plum 
have  been  esteemed  of  specific  value  :  in  some  apricots  the  stone  is 
almost  siDherical,  in  others  much  flattened,  being  either  sharp  in 
front  or  blunt  at  both  ends,  sometimes  channelled  along  the  back, 
or  with  a  sharp  ridge  along  both  margins.  In  the  Moorpark,  and 
generally  in  the  Hemskirke,  the  stone  presents  a  singular  character 
in  being  perforated,  with  a  bundle  of  fibres  passing  through  the 
perforation  from  end  to  end.  The  most  constant  and  important 
character,  according  to  Thompson,  is  whether  the  kernel  is  bitter 
or  sweet :  yet  in  this  respect  we  have  a  graduated  difference,  for 
the  kernel  is  very  bitter  in  Shipley's  apricot;  in  the  Hemskirke 
less  bitter  than  in  some  other  kinds  ;  slightly  bitter  in  the  Eoyal ; 
and  "  sweet  like  a  hazel-nut "  in  the  Breda,  Angouinois,  and  others. 

°*  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1857,  p.  Bot.,'  p.  879. 

216.  «^  'Transact.     Hort.     Soc'     (2nd 

^^  'Journal   of  Hort.  Soc.,'  vol.  ii.  series),  vol.  i.   1835,  p.  56,     See  also 

p.  283.  '  Cat.  of  Fruit  in  Garden  of  Hort.  Soc, 

««    Alph.  de   Candollc,    '  Geograph.  3rd  edit.  1842. 


366 


FRUITS  : 


Chap.  X. 


In  the  case  of  the  almond,  bitterness  has  been  thought  by  some 
high  authorities  to  indicate  specific  difference. 

In  N.  America  the  Eoman  apricot  endures  "  cold  and  unfavour- 
able situations,  ^here  no  other  sort,  except  the  Masculine,  will 
succeed;  and  its  blossoms  bear  quite  a  severe  frost  without 
injury."  ^*^  According  to  Mr.  Eivers,^^  seedling  apricots  deviate  but 
little  from  the  character  of  their  race :  in  Frauce  the  Alberge  is 
constantly  reproduced  from  seed  with  but  little  variation.  In 
Ladakh,  according  to  Moorcroft,^^  ten  varieties  of  the  apricot,  very 
different  from  each  other,  are  cultivated,  and  all  are  raised  from 
seed,  excepting  one,  which  is  budded. 

Plums  {Prunus  ihsifAtia). — Formerly  the  sloe,  P.  spinosa,  was 
thought  to  be  the  parent  of  all  our  plums  ;  but  now  this  honour  is 

4 


j'jg_  43. Plum  Stones,  oi  natural  size,  viewed  laterally.     1.  BuUace  Plum.    2.  Shropshire 

Damson.    3.  Blue  Gage.    4.  Orleans.     5.  Elvas.    6.  Denyer's  Victoria.    1.  Diamond. 

very  commonly  accorded  to  P.  irisititia  or  the  bullace,  which  is 
found  wild  in  the  Caucasus  aud  N.-Western  India,  and  is  natural- 
ised in  England.^^  It  is  not  at  all  improbable,  in  accordance  with 
some  observations  made  by  Mr.  Eivers,'^^  that  both  these  forms, 
which  some  botanists  rank  as  a  siugle  species,  may  be  the  parents 
of  our  domesticated  plums.  Another  supposed  parent-form,  the 
P.  domestica,  is  said  to  be  found  wild  in  the  region  of  the  Caucasus. 


'^^  Downing,  '  The  Fruits  ot  Ame- 
rica,' 1845,  p.  157:  with  respect  to 
the  Alberge  apricot  in  France,  see  p. 
153. 

•^^  '  Gardener's  Chronicle.'  1863,  p. 
364. 

'"   'Travels  in  the  Himalayan  Pro- 


vinces,' vol.  i.  1841,  p.  295. 

^^  See  an  excellent  discussion  on 
this  subject  in  Hewett  C.  Watson's 
'  Cybele  Britannica,'  vol.  iv.  p.  80. 

"  'Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1865,  p 
27. 


Chap.  X.  PLUMS.  367 

Godron  remarks  '^^  that  the  cultivated  varieties  may  be  divided  into 
two  main  groups,  which  he  supposes  to  be  descended  from  two 
aboriginal  stocks;  namely,  those  with  oblong  fruit  and  stones 
pointed  at  both  ends,  having  narrow  separate  petals  and  upright 
branches ;  and  those  with  rounded  fruit,  with  stones  blunt  at  both 
ends,  with  rounded  petals  and  spreading  branches.  From  what 
we  know  of  the  variability  of  the  flowers  in  the  peach  and  of  the 
diversified  manner  of  growth  in  our  various  fruit-trees,  it  is  difficult 
to  lay  much  weight  on  these  latter  characters.  With  respect  to 
the  shape  of  the  fruit,  we  have  conclusive  evidence  that  it  is 
extremely  variable :  Downing  ■•*  gives  outlines  of  the  plums  of  two 
seedlings,  namely,  the  red  and  imperial  gages,  raised  from  the 
greengage ;  and  the  fruit  of  both  is  more  elongated  than  that  of  the 
greengage.  The  latter  has  a  very  blunt  broad  stone,  whereas  the 
stone  of  the  imperial  gage  is  "oval  and  pointed  at  both  ends."' 
These  trees  also  difier  in  their  manner  of  growth :  "  the  greengage 
is  a  very  short-jointed,  slow-growing  tree,  of  spreading  and  rather 
dwarfish  habit ; "  whilst  its  offspring,  the  imperial  gage,  "  grows 
freely  and  rises  rapidly,  and  has  long  dark  shoots."  The  famous 
"Washington  plum  bears  a  globular  fruit,  but  its  offspring,  the 
emerald  drop,  is  nearly  as  much  elongated  as  the  most  elongated 
plum  figured  by  Downing,  namely,  Manning's  prune.  I  have  made 
a  small  collection  of  the  stones  of  twenty-five  kinds,  and  they 
graduate  in  shape  from  the  bluntest  into  the  sharpest  kinds.  As 
characters  derived  from  seeds  are  generally  of  high  systematic 
importance,  I  have  thought  it  worth  while  to  give  drawings  of  the 
most  distinct  kinds  in  my  small  collection ;  and  they  may  be  seen 
to  differ  in  a  surprising  manner  in  size,  outline,  thickness,  promi- 
nence of  the  ridges,  and  state  of  surface.  It  deserves  notice  that 
the  shape  of  the  stone  is  not  always  strictly  correlated  with  that  of 
the  fruit :  thus  the  Washington  plum  is  spherical  and  depressed  at 
the  pole,  with  a  somewhat  eloDgated  stone,  whilst  the  fruit  of 
the  Goliath  is  more  elongated,  but  the  stone  less  so,  than  in  the 
Washington.  Again,  Denyer's  Victoria  and  Gohath  bear  fruit 
closely  resembling  each  other,  but  their  stones  are  widely  different. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Harvest  and  Black  Margate  plums  are  very 
dissimilar,  yet  include  closely  similar  stones. 

The  varieties  of  the  plum  are  numerous,  and  differ  greatly  in 
size,  shape,  quality,  and  colour, — being  bright  yellow,  green,  almost 
white,  blue,  purple,  or  red.  There  are  some  curious  varieties,  such 
as  the  double  or  Siamese,  and  the  Stoneless  plum :  in  the  latter  the 


"  <  De  I'Esp&ce,' torn.  ii.  p.  94.     On  278,    284,     310,    314.       Mr.    Rivers 

the  parentage  of  our  plums,  see  also  raised    (' Gard.   Chron.,'  1863,  p.  27) 

Alph.  De  Candolle,  '  Geograph.  Bot.,'  from   the  Prune-peche,   which    bears 

p.  878.    Also  Targioni-Tozzetti, 'Jour-  large,    round,    red    plums    on    stout, 

nal  Hort.  Soc.,'  vol.  ix.  p.  164.     Also  robust  shoots,  a  seedling  which  bears 

Babington,  '  Manual  of  Brit.  Botany,'  oval,  smaller  fruit  on  shoots  that  are 

18M,  p.  87.  so  slender  as  to  be  almost  pendulous. 

'*  '  Fruits  of  America,'  pp.    276, 


368  FRUITS :  "  Chap.  X. 

kernel  lies  in  a  roomy  cavity  surrounded  only  by  the  pulp.  The 
climate  of  North  America  appears  to  be  singularly  favourable  for 
the  production  of  new  and  good  varieties;  Downing  describes  no 
less  than  forty,  of  which  seven  of  first-rate  quality  have  been 
recently  introduced  into  England.'^"  Varieties  occasionally  arise 
having  an  innate  adaptation  for  certain  soils,  almost  as  strongly 
pronounced  as  with  natural  species  growing  on  the  most  distinct 
geological  formations ;  thus  in  America  the  imperial  gage,  differently 
from  almost  all  other  kinds,  "  is  peculiarly  fitted  for  dry  light  soils 
where  many  sorts  drop  their  fruit/'  whereas  on  rich  heavy  soils  the 
fruit  is  often  insipid.'''^  My  father  could  never  succeed  in  making 
the  Wine- Sour  yield  even  a  moderate  crop  in  a  sandy  orchard  near 
Shrewsbury,  whilst  in  some  parts  of  the  same  county  and  in  its 
native  Yorkshire  it  bears  abundantly :  one  of  my  relations  also 
repeatedly  tried  in  vain  to  grow  this  variety  in  a  sandy  district  in 
Staffordshire. 

Mr.  Rivers  has  given  ^^  a  number  of  interesting  facts,  showing 
how  truly  many  varieties  can  be  propagated  by  seed.  He  sowed 
the  stones  of  twenty  bushels  of  the  greengage  for  the  sake  of  raising 
stocks,  and  closely  observed  the  seedlings;  all  had  the  smooth  shoots, 
the  prominent  buds,  and  the  glossy  leaves  of  the  greengage,  but  the 
greater  number  had  smaller  leaves  and  thorns."  There  are  two 
kinds  of  damson,  one  the  Shropshire  with  downy  shoots,  and  the 
other  the  Kentish  with  smooth  shoots,  and  these  differ  but  slightly 
in  any  other  respect :  Mr.  Rivers  sowed  some  bushels  of  the  Kentish 
damson,  and  all  the  seedlings  had  smooth  shoots,  but  in  some 
the  fruit  was  oval,  in  others  round  or  roundish,  and  in  a  fe--v  the 
fruit  was  small,  and,  except  in  being  sweet,  closely  resembled  that 
of  the  wild  sloe.  Mr.  Rivers  gives  several  other  striking  instances 
of  inheritance:  thu.s,  he  raised  eighty  thousand  seedlings  from  the 
common  German  Quetsche  plum,  and  "  not  one  could  be  found 
varying  in  the  least,  in  foliage  or  habit.''  Similar  facts  were  observed 
with  the  Petite  Mirabelle  plum,  yet  this  latter  kind  (as  well  as  the 
Quetsche)  is  known  to  have  yielded  some  well-established  varieties ; 
but,  as  Mr.  Rivers  remarks,  they  all  belong  to  the  same  group  with 
the  Mirabelle. 

Cherries  (Prunus  cerasus,  avium,  &c.). — Botanists  believe  that  our 
cultivated  cherries  are  descended  from  one,  two,  four,  or  even  more 
wild  stocks. '^^  That  there  must  be  at  least  two  parent  species  we 
may  infer  from  the  sterility  of  twenty  hybrids  raised  by  Mr.  Knight 
from  the  morello  fertilized  by  pollen  of  the  Elton  cherry ;  for  these 
hybrids  produced  in  all  only  five  cherries,  and  one  alone  of  these 

"^  *  Gardener's  Chronicle,' 1855,   p.  see  also   Downin2;'s  'Fruit   Trees    of 

726.  America,'  p.  305/312,  &c. 

^^  Downing's  '  Fruit  Trees,' p.  278.  ^^  Compare     Alph.     De    Candolle, 

'^  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1863,  p.  <  Geograph,   Bot.,'  p.   877;  Benthara 

27.    Sageret,  in  his  '  Pomologie  Phys.,'  and  Targioni-Tozzetti,  in  '  Hort.  Jour- 

p.  348,   enumerates  five  kinds  which  al,'    vol.    ix.  p.    163  ;  GodroU)    '  De 

can  be  propagated  in  France  by  seed :  I'Espfece,'  torn.  ii.  p.  92, 


Chap.  X.  CHERRIES— ArPLES.  369 

contained  a  seedJ'  Mr.  Thompson^*'  has  classified  the  varieties  in 
an  apparently  natural  method  in  two  main  groups  by  characters 
taken  from  the  flowers,  fruit,  and  leaves ;  but  some  varieties  which 
stand  widely  separate  in  this  classifi.cation  are  quite  fertile  when 
crossed-  thus  Knight's  Early  Black  cherries  is  the  product  of  a  cross 
between  two  such  kinds. 

Mr.  Knight  states  that  seedling  cherries  are  more  variable  than 
those  of  any  other  fruit-tree.^^  In  the  Catalogue  of  the  Horticultural 
Society  for  1842,  eighty  varieties  are  enumerated.  Some  varieties 
present  singular  characters :  thus,  the  flower  of  the  Cluster  cherry 
includes  as  many  as  twelve  pistils,  of  which  the  majority  abort ;  and 
they  are  said  generally  to  produce  from  two  to  five  or  six  cherries 
aggregated  together  and  borne  on  a  single  peduncle.  In  the  Eatafia 
cherry  several  flower-peduncles  arise  from  a  common  peduncle, 
upwards  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  fruit  of  Gascoigne's  Heart  has 
its  apex  produced  into  a  globule  or  drop ;  that  of  the  white  Hunga- 
rian Gean  has  almost  transparent  flesh.  The  Flemish  cherry  is  "  a 
very  odd-looking  fruit,"  much  flattened  at  the  summit  and  base, 
with  the  latter  deeply  furrowed,  and  borne  on  a  stout,  very  short 
footstalk.  In  the  Kentish  cherry  the  stone  adheres  so  firmly  to  the 
footstalk,  that  it  could  be  drawn  out  of  the  flesh;  and  this  renders 
the  fruit  well  fitted  for  drying.  The  Tobacco-leaved  cherry,  accord- 
ing to  Sageret  and  Thompson,  produces  gigantic  leaves,  more  than 
a  foot  and  sometimes  even  eighteen  inches  in  length,  and  half  a  foot 
in  breadth.  The  weeping  cherry,  on  the  other  baud,  is  valuable 
only  as  an  ornament,  and,  according  to  Downing,  is  "  a  charming 
little  tree,  with  slender,  weeping  branches,  clothed  with  small,  almost 
myrtle-like  foliage."     There  is  also  a  peach-leaved  variety. 

Sageret  describes  a  remarkable  variety,  U  griottier  de  la  Toussaint, 
which  bears  at  the  same  time,  even  as  late  as  September,  flowers  and 
fruit  of  all  degrees  of  maturity.  The  fruit,  which  is  of  inferior 
quality,  is  borne  on  long,  very  thin  footstalks.  But  the  extraordinary 
statement  is  made  that  all  the  leaf-bearing  shoots  spring  from  old 
flower- buds.  Lastly,  there  is  an  important  physiological  distinction 
between  those  kinds  of  cherries  which  bear  fruit  on  young  or  on  old 
wood ;  but  Sageret  positively  asserts  that  a  Bigarreau  in  his  garden 
bore  fruit  on  wood  of  both  ages.^^ 

Apple  (Fyrus  malus). — The  one  source  of  doubt  felt  by  botanists 
with  respect  to  the  parentage  of  the  apple  is  whether,  besides  P. 
malus,  two  or  three  other  closely  allied  wild  forms,  namely,  P.  acerha 
and  prcecox  or  paradisiaca,  do  not  deserve  to  be  ranked  as  distinct 


'°  *  Transact.   Hort.  Soc.,'  vol.   v.,  Thompson,  in  '  Hort.    Transact.,'  see 

1824,  p.  295.  above;  Sageret 's    '  Pomologie  Phys  ,' 

^°  IbiJ.,  second  series,  vol.  i.,  1835,  1830,  pp.  358,  364,867,  379;  '  Cata- 

p.  248.  logue    of  the  Fruit  in    the    Garden 

"  Ibid.,  vol.  ii.  p.  138.  ot   Hort.    Soc.,'    1842,    pp.     57,    60  ; 

^2  These    several    statements    are  Downing,   'The  Fruits   of  America, 

taken  fron)  the  fuur  fo. lowing  works,  1845,  pj).  Ib9,  195    200. 
which   may,  I   believe,    be    trusted. : 

25 


370  FRUITS:  Chap.  X. 

species.  The  P.  prcecox  is  supposed  by  some  authors ^^  to  be  the 
parent  of  the  dwarf  paradise  stock,  which,  owing  to  the  fibrous  roots 
not  penetrating  deeply  into  the  ground,  is  so  largely  used  for 
grafting ;  but  the  paradise  stocks,  it  is  asserted,^*  cannot  be  propa- 
gated true  by  seed.  The  common  wild  crab  varies  considerably  in 
England ;  but  many  of  the  varieties  are  believed  to  be  escaped 
seedlings.^^  Every  one  knows  the  great  difference  in  the  manner 
of  growth,  in  the  foliage,  flowers,  and  especially  in  the  fruit,  between 
the  almost  innumerable  varieties  of  the  apple.  The  pips  or  seeds 
(as  I  know  by  comparison)  likewise  diifer  considerably  in  shape, 
size,  and  colour.  The  fruit  is  adapted  for  eating  or  for  cooking  in 
various  ways,  and  keeps  for  only  a  few  weeks  or  for  nearly  two 
years.  Some  few  kinds  have  the  fruit  covered  with  a  powdery 
secretion,  called  bloom,  like  that  on  plums ;  and  "  it  is  extremely 
remarkable  that  this  occurs  almost  exclusively  among  varieties 
cultivated  in  Russia."  ^^  Another  Eussian  apple,  the  white  Astracan, 
possesses  the  singular  property  of  becoming  transparent,  when  ripe, 
like  some  sorts  of  crabs.  The  ajn  etoile  has  five  pr©minent  ridges, 
hence  its  name ;  the  api  noir  is  nearly  black :  the  twioi  cluster  pippin 
often  bears  fruit  joined  in  pairs.^''^  The  trees  of  the  several  sorts 
differ  greatly  in  their  periods  of  leafing  and  flowering;  in  my 
orchard  the  Coiirt  Pendu  Flat  produces  leaves  so  late,  that  during 
several  springs  I  thought  that  it  was  dead.  The  Tiffin  apple 
scarcely  bears  a  leaf  when  in  full  bloom ;  the  Cornish  crab,  on  the 
other  hand,  bears  so  many  leaves  at  this  period  that  the  flowers 
can  hardly  be  seen.^^  In  some  kinds  the  fruit  ripens  in  mid- 
summer; in  others,  late  in  the  autumn.  These  several  differences 
in  leafing,  flowering,  and  fruiting,  are  not  at  all  necessarily  cor- 
related ;  for,  as  Andrew  Knight  has  remarked,^^  no  one  can  judge 
from  the  early  flowering  of  a  new  seedling,  or  from  the  early 
shedding  or  change  of  colour  of  the  leaves,  whether  it  will  mature 
its  fruit  early  in  the  season. 

The  varieties  differ  greatly  in  constitution.     It  is  notorious  that 
our  summers  are  not  hot  enough  for  the  Newtown  Pippin,^"  which 


«3  Mr.  Lowe  states  in  his  '  Flora  of  Soc.,'  1823,  p.  459. 

Madeira'  (quoted  in  '  Gard.  Chron.,'  ^^  H.  C.   Watson,  '  Cybele  Britan- 

]862,  ^.  215)  that  the  P.  mains,  with  nica,'  vol.  i.  p.  334. 

its  nearly  sessile  fruit,  ranges  farther  ®^  Loudon's  '  Gardener's  Mag.,'  vol. 

south  than  the  long-stalked  P.  acerha,  vi.,  1830,  p.  83. 

which  is  entirely  absent  in  Madeira,  *'  See  'Catalogue  of  Fruit  in  Gar- 

the  Canaries,  and  apparently  in  For-  den     of      Hort.     Soc.,'      1842,      and 

tugal.     This  fact  supports  the  belief  Downing's  '  American  Fruit  Trees.' 

that    these  two  forms  deserve  to  be  **  Loudon's  •  Gardener's  Magazine,' 

called    species.     But    the    characters  vol.  iv.,  1828,  p.  1 12. 

separating  them  are  of  slight  import-  *^  '  The  Culture  of  the  Apple,'  p. 

ance,  and  of  a  kind  known  to  vary  in  43.  Van  Mons  makes  the  same  remark 

other  cultivated  fruit-trees.  on  the  pear,  '  Arbres  Fruitiers,'  torn. 

^^  Sce'ionxn.    of  Hort.  Tour,    by  ii.,  1836.,  p.  414. 

Deputation    of  the  Caledonian  Hort.  so  _L^^(ijey's  ^Horticulture,' p.  116 


Chap.  X.  APPLES.  371 

is  the  glory  of  the  orchards  near  New  York;  and  so  it  is  with 
several  varieties  which  we  have  imported  from  the  Continent.  On 
the  other  hand,  our  Court  of  Wick  succeeds  well  under  the  severe 
climate  of  Canada.  The  Calville  rouge  de  Micoud  occasionally  bears 
two  crops  during  the  same  year.  The  Burr  Knot  is  covered  with 
small  excrescences,  which  emit  roots  so  readily  that  a  branch  with 
blossom-buds  may  be  stuck  in  the  ground,  and  will  root  and  bear  a 
few  fruit  even  during  the  first  year,^^  Mr.  Ptivers  has  recently 
described ^^  some  seedlings  valuable  from  their  roots  running  near 
the  surface.  One  of  these  seedlings  was  remarkable  from  its 
extremely  dwarfed  size,  "  forming  itself  into  a  bush  only  a  few 
inches  in  height."  Many  varieties  are  particularly  liable  to  canker 
in  certain  soils.  But  perhaps  the  strangest  constitutional  peculiarity 
is  that  the  Winter  Majetin  is  not  attacked  by  the  mealy  bug  or 
coccus;  Lindley^^  states  that  in  an  orchard  in  Norfolk  infested 
with  these  insects  the  Majetin  was  quite  free,  though  the  stock  on 
which  it  was  grafted  was  affected :  Knight  makes  a  similar  state- 
ment with  respect  to  a  cider  apple,  and  adds  that  he  only  once 
saw  these  insects  just  above  the  stock,  but  that  three  days  after- 
wards they  entirely  disappeared ;  this  apple,  however,  was  raised 
from  a  cross  between  the  Golden  Harvey  and  the  Siberian  Crab; 
and  the  latter,  I  believe,  is  considered  by  some  authors  as  specific- 
ally distinct. 

The  famous  St.  Valery  apple  must  not  be  passed  over;  the  flower 
has  a  double  calyx  with  ten  divisions,  and  fourteen  styles  sur- 
mounted by  conspicuous  oblique  stigmas,  but  is  destitute  of  stamens 
or  corolla.  The  fruit  is  constricted  round  the  middle,  and  is  formed 
of  five  seed-cells,  surmounted  by  nine  other  cells.^'*     Not  being 


See  also  Knight  on  the  Apple-Tree,  in  New  Zealand  Institute,*  vol.  iv.,  1871, 

^Transact.  ofHort.  Soc.,'  vol.  vi.  p.  22y.  p.  431)  raised  seedlings  of  the  Siberian 

^^  '  Transact.    Hort.   Soc.,'    vol.    i.  Bitter  Sweet  for  stocks,  and  he  found 

1812,  p.  120.  barely  one  per  cent,  of  them  attacked 

^2  '  Journal  of  Horticulture,' March  by  the  coccus.     Riley   shows  ('Fifth 

loth,  1866,  p.  194.  Report  on  Insects  of  Missouri,'  1873,  p. 

^*  'Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,' vol.  iv.  p.  87)  that  in  the  United  States  some 
68.  For  Knight's  case,  see  vol.  vi.  p.  varieties  of  apples  are  highly  attrac- 
547.  When  the  coccus  first  appeared  tive  to  the  coccus  and  others  very 
in  this  country,  it  is  said  (vol.  ii.  p.  little  so.  Turning  to  a  verv  ditiferent 
]  63)  that  it  was  more  injurious  to  pest,  nnmely,  the  caterpillar  of  a 
crab-.stocks  than  to  the  apples  grafted  moth  {Carpocapsa  pomonel/a),  Walsh 
on  them.  The  Majetin  apple  has  been  affirms  ('  The  American  Entomologist,' 
found  equally  free  of  the  coccus  at  Mel-  April,  1869,  ]i.  160)  that  the  maiden- 
bourne  in  Australia  (' Gard.  Chron.'  blush  "is  entirely  exempt  from 
1871,  p.  1065).  The  wood  of  this  appL -worms."  So,  it  is  said,  are 
tree  has  been  there  analysed,  and  it  is  some  few  other  varieties  ;  whereas 
said  (but  the  fact  seems  a  strange  one)  others  are  "peculiarly  subject  to 
that  its  ash  contained  over  50  ]ier  the  atta>  ks  of  this  little  pest." 
cent,  of  lime,  while  that  of  the  crab  ^*  '  Mem.  de  Ja  Sic.  Linn,  de  Paris, 
exhibited  not  quite  23  per  cent.  torn,  iii.,  1825,  p.  164;  and  Serino-«^ 
In    Tasmania  Mr.  Wade  ('Transact.  'Bulletin  Bot.'  1830,  p.  117. 


372  FRUITS:  Chap.  X. 

provided  with  stamens,  the  tree  requires  artificial  fertilisation ;  and 
the  girls  of  St.  Valery  annually  go  to  ''faire  ses  pommes,"  each 
marking  her  own  fruit  with  a  ribbon;  and  as  different  pollen  is 
used  the  fruit  differs,  and  we  here  have  an  instance  of  the  direct 
action  of  foreign  pollen  on  the  mother  plant.  These  monstrous 
apples  include,  as  we  have  seen,  fourteen  seed-cells;  the  pigeon- 
apple,^^  on  the  other  hand,  has  only  four,  instead  of,  as  with  all 
common  apples,  five  cells;  and  this  certainly  is  a  remarkable 
difference. 

In  the  catalogue  of  apples  published  in  1842  by  the  Horticultural 
Society,  897  varieties  are  enumerated ;  but  the  differences  between 
most  of  them  are  of  comjDaratively  little  interest,  as  they  are  not 
'jtrictly  inherited.  No  one  can  raise,  for  instance,  from  the  seed  of 
the  Ribston  Pippin,  a  tree  of  the  same  kind  ;  and  it  is  said  that  the 
"  Sister  Ribston  Pippin  "  was  a  white  semi-transparent,  sour-fleshed 
apple,  or  rather  large  crab.^*^  Yet  it  was  a  mistake  to  suppose  that 
with  most  varieties  the  characters  are  not  to  a  certain  extent 
jiherited.  In  two  lots  of  seedlings  raised  from  two  well-marked 
kinds,  many  worthless  crab-like  seedlings  will  appear,  but  it  is  now 
known  that  the  two  lots  not  only  usually  differ  from  each  other,  but 
resemble  to  a  certain  extent  their  parents.  We  see  this  indeed  in 
the  several  sub-groups  of  Russetts,  Sweetings,  Codlins,  Pearmains, 
Reinettss,  &c.,^''  wliich  are  all  believed,  and  many  are  known,  to  be 
descended  from  other  varieties  bearing  the  same  names. 

Fears  (Ftjrus  communis). — I  need  say  little  on  this  fruit,  which 
varies  much  in  the  wild  state,  and  to  an  extraordinary  degree  when 
cultivated,  in  its  fruit,  flowers,  and  foliage.  One  of  the  most 
celebrated  botanists  in  Europe,  M.  Decaisne,  has  carefully  studied 
the  many  varieties  f^  although  he  formerly  believed  that  they  were 
derived  from  more  than  one  species,  he  now  thinks  that  all  belong 
to  one.  He  has  arrived  at  this  conclusion  from  finding  in  the 
several  varieties  a  perfect  gradation  between  the  most  extreme 
characters ;  so  perfect  is  this  gradation  that  he  maintains  it  to  be 
impossible  to  classify  the  varieties  by  any  natural  method.  M. 
Decaisne  raised  many  seedlings  from  four  distinct  kinds,  and  has 
carefully  recorded  the  variations  in  each.  Notwithstanding  this 
extreme  degree  of  variability,  it  is  now  positively  known  that  many 
kinds  reproduce  by  seed  the  leading  characters  of  their  race.^^ 

Strawberries  (Fragaria). — This  fruit  is  remarkable  on  account 
of  the  number  of  species  which  have  been  cultivated,  and  from 


^*  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1849,  p.  des  diverses  Yarietds,'  in  '  Mem.   da 

24.  I'Acad.  Imp.  de  Lyon,'  tom.  ii.,  1852, 

®'  R.    Thompson,    in     '  Gardener's  pp.  95,  114.     '  Gardener's  Chronicle,' 

Chron.,'  1850,  p.  788.  1850,  pp.  774,  788. 

*'  Sageret,    '  Pomologie    Physiolo-  ®*  'Comptes    Rendus,'    July     6th; 

gique,'    1830,     p.    263.     Downing's  1863. 

*  Fruit  Tret 3,' pp.  130,  134,  139,  &c.  "^  'Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1856,  p 

Loudon's  HJardener's  Mag,,'  vol.  viii.  804;  1857,  p.  820  ;   1862,  p.  1195 
p.  317.     Alexis  Jordan,  '  De  rOrigine- 


Chap.  X.  STRAWBERRIES.  3Y3 

their  rapid  improvement  within  the  last  fifty  or  sixty  years.  Let 
any  one  compare  the  fruit  of  one  of  the  largest  varieties  exhibited 
at  our  Shows  with  that  of  the  wild  wood  strawberry,  or,  which 
will  be  a  fairer  comparison,  with  the  somewhat  larger  fruit  of  the 
wild  American  Virginian  Strawberry,  and  he  will  see  what  prodigies 
horticulture  has  effected,^*"'  The  number  of  varieties  has  likewise 
increased  in  a  surprisingly  rapid  manner.  Only  three  kinds  were 
known  in  France,  in  1746,  where  this  fruit  was  early  cultivatedc 
In  1766  five  species  had  been  introduced,  the  same  which  are  now 
cultivated,  but  only  five  varieties  of  Fragaria  vesca,  with  some 
sub-varieties,  had  been  produced.  At  the  present  day  the  varieties 
of  the  several  species  are  almost  innumerable.  The  species  consist 
of,  firstly,  the  wood  or  Alpine  cultivated  strawberries,  descended 
from  F,  vesca,  a  native  of  Europe  and  of  North  America.  There 
are  eight  wild  European  varieties,  as  ranked  by  Duchesne,  of 
F.  vesca,  but  several  of  these  are  considered  species  by  some 
botanists.  Secondly,  the  green  strawberries,  descended  from  the 
European  F.  colina,  and  little  cultivated  in  England.  Thirdly, 
the  Hautbois,  from  the  European  F.  elatior.  Fourthly,  the  Scarlets, 
descended  from  F.  virginiana,  a  native  of  the  whole  breadth  of 
North  America.  Fifthly,  the  Chili,  descended  from  F.  chihensis, 
an  inhabitant  ot  the  west  coast  of  the  temperate  parts  both  of 
North  and  South  America.  Lastly,  the  pines  or  Carolinas  (including 
the  old  Blacks),  which  have  been  ranked  by  most  authors  under 
the  name  of  F.  grandiflora  as  a  distinct  species,  said  to  inhabit 
Surinam;  but  this  is  a  manifest  error.  This  form  is  considered 
by  the  highest  authority,  M.  Gay,  to  be  merely  a  strongly  marked 
race  of  F.  chiloensis}^^  These  five  or  six  forms  have  been  ranked 
by  most  botanists  as  specifically  distinct ;  but  this  may  be  doubted, 
for  Andrew  Knight,^^^  who  raised  no  less  than  400  crossed  straw- 
berries, asserts  that  the  F.  virginiana,  chiloensis  and  grandiflora 
"  may  be  made  to  breed  together  indiscriminately,"  and  he  found, 
in  accordance  with  the  principle  of  analogous  variation,  "that 
similiar  varieties  could  be  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  any  one  of 
them." 

Since  Knight's  time  there  is  abundant  and  additional  evidence  ^"' 
of  the  extent  to  which  the  American  forms  spontaneously  cross. 
We  owe  indeed   to  such  crosses  most    of  our  choicest  existing 

^^^  Most  of  the  largest  cultivated  of  F.    vesca,   or    our  common   wood- 

strawberries  are  the  descendants  of  F.  strawberry. 

grandiflora  or  chiloensis,  and  I  have  i»i  '  Le  Fraisier,'  par  le  Comte  L.  de 

seen   no  account  of    these    f  )rras    in  Lambertye,  1864,  p.  50. 
their  wild  state.     Methuen's  Scarlet  i**^  t  Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,'  vol.  iii. 

(Downing,     '  Fruits,'     p.     527)     has  1820,  p.  207. 

"  immense  fruit  of  the  largest  size,"  ^^^  /See  an  account  by  Prof.  Decaisne, 

and  belongs  to  the  section  descended  and  by  others  in  '  Gardener's  Chron- 

from  F.  virginiana  ;  and  the  fruit  of  icle,'  1862,  p   335,  and   1858,  p.  172- 

this  species,  as  I  hear  from   Prof.  A.  and    Mr.    Barnet's    paper    in    '  Hort, 

Gray,  is  only  a  little  larger  than  that  Soc.  Transact.,'  vol.  vi.  1826,  p.  170. 


374  FRUITS:  Chap.  X. 

varieties.  Knight  did  not  succeed  m  crossing  the  European  wood- 
strawberry  with  the  American  Scarlet  or  with  the  Hautbois. 
Mr.  Williams  of  Pitmaston,  however,  succeeded ;  but  the  hybrid 
offspring  from  the  Hautbois,  though  fruiting  well,  never  produced 
seed,  with  the  exception  of  a  single  one,  which  reproduced  the 
parent  hybrid  form.^°^  Major  R.  Trevor  Clarke  informs  me  that 
he  crossed  two  members  of  the  Pine  class  (Myatt's  B.  Queen  and 
Keen's  Seedling)  with  the  wood  and  hautbois,  and  that  in  each 
case  he  raised  only  a  single  seedling;  one  of  these  fruited,  but 
was  almost  barren.  Mr.  W.  Smith,  of  York,  has  raised  similar 
hybrids  with  equally  poor  success-^^"*  We  thus  see^°^  that  the 
European  and  American  species  can  with  some  diflBculty  be  crossed ; 
but  it  is  improbable  that  hybrids  sufficiently  fertile  to  be  worth 
cultivation  will  ever  be  thus  produced.  This  fact  is  surprising, 
as  these  forms  structurally  are  not  widely  distinct,  and  are  some- 
times connected  in  the  districts  where  they  grow  wild,  as  I  hear 
from  Professor  Asa  Gray,  by  puzzling  intermediate  forms. 

The  energetic  culture  of  the  Strawberry  is  of  recent  date,  and 
the  cultivated  varieties  can  in  most  cases  be  classed  under  some 
one  of  the  above  native  stocks.  As  the  American  strawberries 
cross  so  freely  and  spontaneously,  we  can  hardly  doubt  that  they 
will  ultimately  become  inextricably  confused.  We  find,  indeed, 
that  horticulturists  at  present  disagree  under  which  class  to  rank 
some  few  of  the  varieties ;  and  a  writer  in  the  '  Bon  Jardinier ' 
of  1840  remarks  that  formerly  it  was  possible  to  class  all  of  them 
under  some  one  species,  but  that  now  this  is  quite  impossible  with, 
the  American  forms,  the  new  English  varieties  having  completely 
filled  up  the  gaps  between  them.^''^  The  blending  together  of  two 
or  more  aboriginal  forms,  which  there  is  every  reason  to  believe 
has  occurred  with  some  of  our  anciently  cultivated  productions, 
we  see  now  actually  occurring  with  our  strawberries. 

The  cultivated  species  offer  some  variations  worth  notice.  The 
Black  Prince,  a  seedling  from  Keen's  Imperial  (this  latter  being 
a  seedling  of  a  very  white  strawberry,  the  white  Carolina),  is 
remarkable  from  ''its  peculiar  dark  and  polished  surface,  and 
from  presenting  an  appearance  entirely  unlike  that  of  any  other 
kind.'-^°^  Although  the  fruit  in  the  different  varieties  differs  so 
greatly  in  form,  size,  colour,  and  quality,  the  so-called  seed  (which 
corresponds  with  the  whole  fruit  in  the  plum)  with  the  exception 
of  being  more  or  less  deeply  embedded  in  the  pulp,  is,  according 
to  De  Jonghe,^°^  absolutely  the  same  in  all :   and  this  no  doubt 


'°^  Transact.   Hort.   Soc.,'   vol.    v.  1862,  p.  721. 
1824.  p.  294.  ^"^  '  Le  Fraisier,'  par  le  Comte  Le 

^"^  '  Jourual  of  Horticulture,'  Dec.  de  Lambertye,  pp.  221,  230. 
30th,    1862,    p.    779.     See   also    Mr.  ^^^  '  Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,'  vol.  vi. 

Prince  to  the  same  effect,  ibid.,  1863,  p.  200. 
p.  418.  '"^  'Gardener's    Chron.,'    1858,    p 

'"^  For     additional     evidence     see  173. 
*  Journal  of  Horticulture,'  Dec.  9th, 


Chap.  X.  STRAWBEKEIES.  375 

may  be  accounted  for  by  the  seed  being  of  no  value,  and  conse- 
quently not  having  been  subjected  to  selection.  The  strawberry 
is  properly  three-leaved,  but  in  1761  Duchesne  raised  a  single- 
leaved  variety  of  the  European  wood-strawberry,  which  Linnaeus 
doubtfully  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  species.  Seedlings  of  this 
variety,  like  those  of  most  varieties  not  fixed  by  long- continued 
selection,  often  revert  to  the  ordinary  form,  or  present  intermediate 
states.""  A  variety  raised  by  Mr.  "Myatt,"^  apparently  belonging 
to  one  of  the  American  forms  presents  a  variation  of  an  opposite 
natrre,  for  it  has  five  leaves  ;  Godron  and  Lambertye  also  mention 
a  five-leaved  variety  of  b\  collina. 

The  Eed  Bush  Alpine  strawberry  (one  of  the  F.  vesca  section) 
does  not  produce  stolons  or  runners,  and  this  remarkable  deviation 
of  structure  is  reproduced  truly  by  seed.  Another  sub-variety, 
the  White  Bush  Alpine,  is  similarly  characterised,  but  when  pro- 
pagated by  seed  it  often  degenerates  and  produces  plants  with 
runners."^  A  strawberry  of  the  American  Pine  section  is  also  said 
to  make  but  few  runners."^ 

Much  has  been  written  on  the  sexes  of  strawberries ;  the  true 
Hautbois  properly  bears  the  male  and  female  organs  on  separate 
plants,"*  and  was  consequently  named  by  Duchesne  dioica;  but 
it  frequently  produces  hermaphrodites;  and  Lindley,"^  by  pro- 
pagating such  plants  by  runners,  at  the  same  time  destroying 
the  males,  soon  raised  a  self-proliiic  stock.  The  other  species 
often  showed  a  tendency  towards  an  imperfect  separation  of  the 
sexes,  as  I  have  noticed  with  plants  forced  in  a  hot-house.  Several 
English  varieties,  which  in  this  country  are  free  from  any  such 
tendency,  when  cultivated  in  rich  soils  under  the  climate  of  North 
America"^  commonly  produce  plants  with  separate  sexes.  Thus 
a  whole  acre  of  Keen's  Seedlings  in  the  United  States  has  been 
observed  to .  be  almost  sterile  from  the  absence  of  male  flowers ; 
but  the  more  general  rule  is,  that  the  male  plants  overrun  the 
females.  Some  members  of  the  Cincinnati  Horticultural  Society, 
especially  appointed  to  investigate  this  subject,  report  that  "  few 
varieties  have  the  flowers  perfect  in  both  sexual  organs,"  &c.  The 
most  successful  cultivators  in  Ohio  plant  for  every  seven  row^s 
of  "  pistillata,"  or  female  plants,  one  row  of  hermaphrodites,  w^hicli 
afford  pollen  for  both  kinds;  but  the  hermaphrodites,  owing  to 
their  expenditure  in  the  production  of  pollen,  bear  less  fruit  than 
the  female  plants. 

The  varieties  differ  in  constitution.     Some  of  our  best  English 

""  Godron,  '  De  I'Espfece,'  torn.  i.  p.  vol.  vi.  p.  210. 

161.  115  'Gardener's   Chron.,'    1847,    p. 

"1  'Gardener's   Chron.,'    1851,    p.  539. 

4-40.  116  For  the  several  statements  with 

112  F.  Gloede  in  '  Gardener's  Chron.,'  respect  to  the  American  strawberries, 

18S2,  p.  1053.  see  Downing,  'Fruits,'  p.  524;  'Gar- 
lic Downing's  '  Fruits,'  p.  532.  dener's  Chronicle,'  1843,  p.  188;  1847 
"*  Barnet,    in    '  Hort.    Transact.,'  p.  539 ;  1861,  p.  717. 


376  FRUITS:  Chap.  X. 

kinds,  such  as  Keen's  Seedlings,  are  too  tender  for  certain  parts 
of  North  America,  whei'e  other  English  and  many  American 
varieties  succeed  perfectly.  That  splendid  fruit,  the  British  Queen, 
can  he  cultivated  but  in  few  places  either  in  England  or  France : 
but  this  apparently  depends  more  on  the  nature  of  the  soil  than 
on  the  climate;  a  famous  gardener  says  that  "no  mortal  could 
grow  the  British  Queen  at  Shrubland  Park  unless  the  whole  nature 
of  the  soil  was  altered." ^^"^  La  Constantine  is  one  of  the  hardiest 
kinds,  and  can  withstand  Eussian  winters,  but  it  is  easily  burnt 
by  the  sun,  so  that  it  will  not  succeed  in  certain  soils  either  in 
England  or  the  United  States. ^^^  The  Filbert  Bine  Strawberry 
"requires  more  water  than  any  other  variety;  and  if  the  plants 
once  suffer  from  drought,  they  will  do  little  or  no  good  afterwards."  ^^^ 
CuthiU's  Black  Prince  Strawberry  evinces  a  singular  tendency 
to  mildew  ;  no  less  than  six  cases  have  been  recorded  of  this  variety 
suffering  severely,  whilst  other  varieties  growing  close  by,  and 
treated  in  exactly  the  same  manner,  were  not  at  all  infested  by 
this  fungus. ^^"  The  time  of  maturity  differs  much  in  the  different 
varieties :  some  belonging  to  the  wood  or  alpine  section  produce 
a  succession  of  crops  throughout  the  summer. 

Gooseberry  (liibes  grossularia). — No  one,  I  believe,  has  hitherto 
doubted  that  all  the  cultivated  kinds  are  sprung  from  the  wild 
plant  bearing  this  name,  which  is  common  in  Central  and  Northern 
Europe ;  therefore  it  will  be  desirable  briefly  to  specify  all  the 
points,  though  not  very  important,  which  have  varied.  If  it  be 
admitted  that  these  differences  are  due  to  culture,  authors  perhaps 
will  not  be  so  ready  to  assume  the  existence  of  a  large  number 
of  unknown  wild  parent-stocks  for  our  other  cultivated  plants. 
The  gooseberry  is  not  alluded  to  by  writers  of  the  classical  period. 
Turner  mentions  it  in  1578,  and  Parkinson  specifies  eight  varieties 
in  1629  ;  the  Catalogue  of  the  Horticultural  Society  for  1842  gives 
149  varieties,  and  the  lists  of  the  Lancashii-e  nurseymen  are  said 
to  include  above  300  names.^^^  In  the  ' Gooseberry  Growers 
Eegister '  for  1862  I  find  that  248  distinct  varieties  have  won  prizes 
at  various  periods,  so  that  a  vast  number  must  have  been  exhibited. 
No  doubt  the  difference  between  many  of  the  varieties  is  very 
small ;  but  Mr.  Thompson  in  classifying  the  fruit  for  the  Horti- 
cultural Society  found  less  confusion  in  the  nomenclature  of  the 
gooseberj'y  than  of  any  other  fruit,  and  he  attributes  this  "  to  the 
great  interest  which  the  prize-growers  have  taken  in  detecting 


"''  Mr.    D.    Beaton,    in    '  Cottage  207. 

Gflrdener,'    1860,    p.    86.     See    also  "^  Mr.  H.  Doubleday  in 'Gardener'd 

Cottage  Gardener,'  1855,  p.  88,  and  Chron.,'  1862,  p.  1101. 

many    other    authorities.       For    the  ^^°  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1854,  p. 

Continent,    see   F.    Gloede,    in    '  Gar-  25-4-. 

'lener's  Chronicle,'  1862,  p.  1053.  '^^  Loudon's  '  Encvclop.  of  Garden- 
ias Rev.  W.  F.  Radclyffe,  in  'Jour-  ing,'  p.  930;  and  Afph.   De  Candclle. 
nal    of   Hort.,'   March    14,    1865,    p.  '  Gtograph.  Bot.,' p.  910. 


Chap.  X.  THE   GOOSEBERRY.  377 

sorts  with   wrong  names,"  and  this   shows   that  all    the   kinds, 
numerous  as  they  are,  can  be  recognised  with  certainty. 

The  bushes  differ  in  their  manner  of  growth,  being  erect,  or 
spreading,  or  pendulous.  The  periods  of  leafing  and  flowering 
differ  both  absolutely  and  relatively  to  each  other  thus  the  White- 
smith produces  early  flowers,  which  from  not  being  protected 
by  the  foliage,  as  it  is  believed,  continually  fail  to  produce  fruit.^^^ 
The  leaves  vary  in  size,  tint,  and  in  depth  of  lobes;  they  are 
smooth,  downy,  or  hairy  on  the  upper  surface.  The  branches 
are  more  or  less  downy  or  spinose ;  "  the  Hedgehog  has  probably 
derived  its  name  from  the  singular  bristly  condition  of  its  shoots 
and  fruit."  The  branches  of  the  wild  gooseberry,  1  may  remark, 
are  smooth,  with  the  exception  of  thorns  at  the  bases  of  the  buds. 
The  thorns  themselves  are  either  very  small,  few  and  single,  or 
very  large  and  triple;  they  are  sometimes  reflexed  and  much 
dilated  at  their  bases.  In  the  different  varieties  the  fruit  varies 
in  abundance,  in  the  period  of  maturity,  in  hanging  until  shrivelled, 
and  greatly  in  size,  "  some  sorts  having  their  fruit  large  during 
a  very  early  period  of  growth,  whilst  others  are  small,  until  nearly 
ripe."  The  fruit  varies  also  much  in  colour,  being  red,  yellow, 
green,  and  white— the  pulp  of  one  dark-red  gooseberry  being 
tinged  with  yellow ;  in  flavour ;  in  being  smooth  or  downy, — few, 
however,  of  the  Eed  gooseberries,  whilst  many  of  the  so-called 
Whites,  are  downy ;  or  in  being  so  spinose  that  one  kind  is  called 
Henderson's  Porcupine.  Two  kinds  acquire  when  mature  a  powdery 
bloom  on  their  fruit.  The  fruit  varies  in  the  thickness  and  vein- 
ing  of  the  skin,  and,  lastly,  in  shape,  being  spherical,  oblong,  oval, 
or  obovate.^^^ 

I  cultivated  fifty-four  varieties,  and,  considering  how  greatly  the 
fruit  differs,  it  was  curious  how  closely  similar  the  flowers  were  in 
all  these  kinds.  In  only  a  few  I  detected  a  trace  of  difference  in  the 
size  or  colour  of  the  corolla.  The  calyx  differed  in  a  rather  greater 
degree,  for  in  some  kinds  it  was  much  redder  than  in  others;  and 
in  one  smooth  white  gooseberry  it  was  unusually  red.  The  calyx 
also  differed  in  the  basal  part  being  smooth  or  woolly,  or  covered 
with  glandular  hairs.  It  deserves  notice,  as  being  contrary  to  what 
might  have  been  expected  from  the  law  of  correlation,  that  a 
smooth  red  gooseberry  had  a  remarkably  hairy  calyx.  The  flowers 
of  the  Sportsman  are  fui-nished  with  very  large  coloured  bracte^e ; 
and  this  is  the  most  singular  deviation  of  structure  which  I  have 
observed.  These  samQ  flowers  also  varied  much  in  the  number  of 
the  petals,  and  occasionally  in  the  number  of  the  stamens  and 
pistils ;  so  that  they  were  semi-monstrous  in  structure,  yet  they 
produced  plenty  of  fruit.     Mr.  Thompson  remarks   that  in   tho 


*^*  Loudon's 'Gardener's  Magazine,'  'Transact.    Hort.    Soc.,'  vol.    i.,   2ud 

vol.  iv.  1828,  p.  112.  series,     1835,    p.     218,    from    which 

^"  The  fullest  account  of  the  goose-  most  of  the  loregciug  facts  are  takcu 
berry  is  givon  by   Mr.  Thompson  in 


378  FRUITS:  Chap.  X„ 

Pastime  gooseberry  "  extra  bracts  are  often  attached  to  the  sides  of 
the  fruit."  '''^ 

The  most  interesting  point  in  the  history  of  the  gooseberry  is  the 
steady  increase  in  the  size  of  the  fruit.  Manchester  is  the  metro- 
polis of  the  fanciers,  and  prizes  from  five  shilhngs  to  five  or  ten 
pounds  are  yearly  given  for  the  heaviest  fruit.  The  *  Gooseberry 
Grower "s  Eegister'  is  pubhshed  annually  ;  the  earliest  known  copy 
is  dated  1786,  but  it  is  certain  that  meetings  for  the  adjudication  of 
prizes  were  held  some  years  previously.^^^  The  '  Eegister '  for  1845 
gives  an  account  of  171  Gooseberry  Shows,  held  in  different  places 
during  that  year ;  and  this  fact  shows  on  how  large  a  scale  the 
culture  has  been  carried  on.  The  fruit  of  the  wild  gooseberry  is 
said  '^  to  weigh  about  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  or  5  dwts ,  that  is,  120 
grains ;  about  the  year  1786  gooseberries  were  exhibited  weighing 
10  dwts.,  so  that  the  weight  was  then  doubled;  in  1817  26  dwts.  17 
grs.  was  attained ;  there  was  no  advance  till  1825,  when  31  dwts. 
16  grs.  was  reached ;  in  1830  "  Teazer  "  weighed  32  dwts.  13  grs. ; 
in  1841  "  Wonderful"  weighed  32  dwts.  16  grs. ;  in  1844  " London" 
weighed  35  dwts.  12  grs.,  and  in  the  following  year  36  dwts.  16 
grs. ;  and  in  1852,  in  Staffordshire,  the  fruit  of  the  same  variety 
reached  the  astonishing  weight  of  37  dwts.  7  grs.,'^"^  or  896  grs. ; 
that  is,  between  seven  or  eight  times  the  weight  of  the  wild  fruit. 
1  find  that  a  small  apple,  65  inches  in  circumference,  has  exactly 
this  same  weight.  The  "  London  "  gooseberry  (which  in  1852  had 
altogether  gained  333  prizes)  has,  up  to  the  present  year  of  1875, 
never  reached  a  greater  weight  than  that  attained  in  1852.  Perhaps 
the  fruit  of  the  gooseberry  has  now  reached  the  greatest  possible 
weight,  unless  in  the  course  of  time  some  new  and  distinct  variety 
shall  arise. 

This  gradual,  and  on  the  whole  steady  increase  of  weight  from 
the  latter  part  of  the  last  century  to  the  year  1852,  is  probably  in 
large  part  due  to  improved  methods  of  cultivation,  for  extreme  care 
is  now  taken ;  the  branches  and  roots  are  trained,  composts  are 
made,  the  soil  is  mulched,  and  only  a  few  berries  are  left  on  each 
bush  ;  ^^^  but  the  increase  no  doubt  is  in  main  part  due  to  the  con- 
tinued selection  of  seedlings  which  have  been  found  to  be  more  and 
more  capable  of  yielding  such  extraordinary  fruit.  Assuredly  the 
"  Highwayman"  in  1817  could  not  have  produced  fruit  like  that  of 
the  "Bearing  Lion"  in  1825;  nor  could  the  "Roaring  Lion,"  though 
it  was  grown  by  many  persons  in  many  places,  gain  the  supremo 
triumph  achieved  in  1852  by  the  "  London  "  Gooseberry. 

-2*  '  Catalogue  of  Fruits  of  Hort.  ^"  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,*  1844,  p. 

Soc.  Garden,'  3rd  edit.  1842.  811,  where  a  table  is  given;  and  1845, 

*■"  Mr.  Clarkson,  of  Manchester,  on  p.    819.      For    the    extreme   weights 

the    Culture    of   the    Gooseberry,    in  gained,  s^e  '  Jourua/  of  Horticulture,' 

Loudon's  'Gardener's  Magazine,'  vol.  Julv  26,  1864,  p.  61. 

iv.  1828,  p.  482.  ^28  Hy.  S;\u1,  of  Lancaster,  in  Lou- 

^^^  Downing's  '  Fruits  of  America,'  don's  '  Gardener's  Mag.,'  vol.  iii.  1828 

p.  213.  p.  421  ;  and  vol.  x.  1834,  p.  42. 


Chap.  X.  WALNUT.  3Y9 

Wahiut  (Jiiglans  regia). — This  tree  and  the  common  nnt  belong 
to  a  widely  different  order  from  the  foregoing  fruits,  and  are  there- 
fore here  noticed.  The  walnut  grows  wild  on  the  Caucasus  and  in 
the  Himalaya,  where  Dr.  Hooker  ^^^  found  the  fruit  of  full  size,  but 
"  as  hard  as  a  hickory-nut."  It  has  been  found  fossil,  as  M.  de 
Saporta  informs  me,  in  the  tertiary  formation,  of  France. 

In  England  the  walnut  presents  considerable  differences,  in  the 
shape  and  size  of  the  fruit,  in  the  thickness  of  the  husk,  and  in  the 
thinness  of  the  shell ;  this  latter  quality  has  given  rise  to  a  variety 
called  the  thin-shelled,  which  is  valuable,  but  suffers  from  the 
attacks  of  tit-mice.^^''  The  degree  to  which  the  kernel  fills  the 
shell  varies  much.  In  France  there  is  a  variety  called  the  Grape 
or  cluster-walnut,  in  which  the  nuts  grow  in  ''bunches  of  ten, 
fifteen,  or  even  twenty  together."  There  is  another  variety  which 
bears  on  the  same  tree  differently  shaped  leaves,  like  the  hetero- 
phyllous hornbeam;  this  tree  is  also  remarkable  from  having 
pendulous  branches,  and  bearing  elongated,  large,  thin-shelled 
nuts.^^^  M.  Cardan  has  minutely  described  ^^^  some  singular  physi- 
ological peculiarities  in  the  June-leafing  variety,  which  produces 
its  leaves  and  flowers  four  or  five  weeks  later  than  the  common 
varieties ;  and  although  in  August  it  is  apparently  in  exactly  the 
same  state  of  forwardness  as  the  other  kinds,  it  retains  its  leaves  and 
fruit  much  later  in  the  autumn.  These  constitutional  peculiarities 
are  strictly  inherited.  Lastly,  walnut-trees,  which  are  properly 
monoicous,  sometimes  entirely  fail  to  produce  male  flowers.^^ 

Nats  (Corylus  aveUana). — Most  botanists  rank  all  the  varieties 
under  the  same  species,  the  common  wild  nut.^^*  The  husk,  or 
involucre,  differs  greatly,  being  extremely  short  in  Barr  s  Spanish, 
and  extremely  long  in  filberts,  in  which  it  is  contracted  so  as  to 
prevent  the  nut  falling  out.  This  kind  of  husk  also  protects  the 
nut  from  birds,  for  titmice  (Farus)  have  been  observed  ^^^  to  pass 
over  filberts,  and  attack  cobs  and  common  nuts  growing  in  the 
same  orchard.  In  the  purple-filbert  the  husk  is  purple,  and  in  the 
frizzled-filbert  it  is  curiously  laciniated;  in  the  red-filbert  the 
pellicle  of  the  kernel  is  red.  The  shell  is  thick  in  some  varieties, 
but  is  thin  in  Cosford's-nut,  and  in  one  variety  is  of  a  bluish  colour. 
The  nut  itself  differs  much  in  size  and  shape,  being  ovate  and 
compressed  in  filberts,  nearly  round  and  of  great  size  in  cobs  and 


»2»  '  Himalayan     Journals,'     1854,  1849,  p.  101. 
vol.  ii.  p.  334.     Moorcroft  (' Travels,'  ^^s  4Qaj.jgQgj.'g    Chronicle,*    1847, 

vol.  ii.  p.  146)  describes  four  varieties  pp.  541  and  558. 
cultivated  in  Kashmir.  ^^*  The  following  details  are  taken 

130  'Gardener's    Chronicle,'    1850,  from  the  '  Catalogue  of  Fruits,  1842, 

p.  723.  in  Garden  of  Hort.  Soc.,'  p.  103;  and 

'3'  Paper   translated    in    Loudon's  from  Loudon's  '  Encyclop.  of  Garden- 

'  Gardener's  Mag.,'   1829,   vol.   v.   p.  ing,'  p.  943. 
202.  '35  'Gardener's   Chron.,'    1860,   p 

132  Quoted  in  '  Gardener's  Chron.,'  950. 


380  CUCURBITACEOUS  PLANTS.  Chap.  5L 

Spanish  nuts,  oblong  and  longitudinally  striated  in  Cosford's,  and 
obiusely  four-sided  in  the  Downton  Square  nut. 

Cucnrbitaceous  plants. — These  plants  have  been  for  a  long  period 
the  opprobrium  of  botanists ;  numerous  varieties  have  been  ranked 
as  species,  and,  what  happens  more  rarely,  forms  which  now  must 
be  considered  as  species  have  been  classed  as  varieties.  Owing  to 
the  admirable  experimental  researches  of  a  distinguished  botanist, 
M.  Naudin,^^^  a  flood  of  light  has  recently  been  thrown  on  this 
group  of  plants.  M.  Naudin,  during  many  years,  observed  and 
experimented  on  above  1200  living  specimens,  collected  from  all 
quarters  of  the  world.  Six  species  are  now  recognised  in  the  genus 
Cucurbita ;  but  three  alone  have  been  cultivated  and  concern  us, 
namely,  C.  m-ixima  and  pepo,  which  include  all  pumpkins,  gourds, 
squashes,  and  the  vegetable  marrow,  and  0.  moschata.  These  three 
species  are  not  known  in  a  wild  state  ;  but  Asa  Gray  ^^'^  gives  good 
reason  for  believing  that  some  pumpkins  are  natives  of  N.  America. 

These  three  species  are  closely  allied,  and  have  the  same  general 
habit,  but  their  innumerable  varieties  can  always  be  distinguished, 
according  to  Naudin,  by  certain  almost  fixed  characters ;  and  what 
is  still  more  important,  when  crossed  they  yield  no  seed,  or  only 
sterile  seed ;  whilst  the  varieties  spontaneously  intercross  with  the 
utmost  freedom.  Naudin  insists  strongly  (p.  15),  that,  though 
these  three  species  have  varied  greatly  in  many  characters,  yet  it 
has  been  in  so  closely  an  analogous  manner  that  the  varieties  can 
be  arranged  in  almost  parallel  series,  as  we  have  seen  with  the 
forms  of  wheat,  with  the  two  main  races  of  the  peach,  and  in  other 
cases.  Though  some  of  the  varieties  are  inconstant  in  character, 
yet  others,  when  grown,  separately  under  uniform  conditions  of  life, 
are,  as  Naudin  repeatedly  (pp.  6,  16,  35)  urges,  "  douees  dune 
stabilite  presque  comparable  a  celle  des  especes  les  mieux  caracte- 
risees.''  One  variety,  I'Orangin  (pp.  43,  63),  has  such  prepotency  in 
transmitting  its  character,  that  when  crossed  with  other  varieties  a 
vast  majority  of  the  seedlings  come  true.  Naudin,  referring  (p.  47) 
to  C.  pepo,  says  that  its  races  "  ne  different  des  especes  veritables 
qu'en  ce  qu'elles  peuvent  s'allier  les  unes  aux  autres  par  voie 
d'hybridite,  sans  que  leur  descendance  perde  la  faculte  de  se 
perpetuer."  If  we  were  to  trust  to  external  differences  alone,  and 
give  up  the  test  of  sterility,  a  multitude  of  species  would  have  to 
be  formed  out  of  the  varieties  of  these  three  species  of  Cucurbita. 
Many  naturalists  at  the  present  day  lay  far  too  little  stress,  in  my 
opinion,  on  the  test  of  sterility;  yet  it  is  not  improbable  that 
distinct  species  of  plants  after  a  long  course  of  cultivation  and 
variation  may  have  their  mutual  sterility  eliminated,  as  we  have 
every  reason  to  believe  has  occurred  with  domesticated  animals. 
Nor,  in  ths  case  of  plants  under  cultivation,  should  we  be  justified 


'3^  'Annaies  des  Sc.  Nat.  Bot.'  4th  ^^^  'American  Journ.   of  Science, 

series,  vol.  vi.  1856,  p.  5.  2ud  ser.  vol.  xxiv.  1857,  p.  442. 


Chap.  X.  CUCUKBITACEOUS  PLANTS.  '  381 

in  assuming  that  varieties  never  acquire  a  slight  degree  of  mutual 
sterility,  as  we  shall  more  fully  see  in  a  future  chapter  when  certain 
facts  are  given  on  the  high  authority  of  Gartner  and  KiJlreuter.^^^ 

The  forms  of  C.  pepo  are  classed  by  Naudin  under  seven  sections, 
each  including  subordinate  varieties.  He  considers  this  plant 
as  probably  the  most  variable  in  the  world.  The  fruit  of  one 
variety  (pp.  33,  46)  exceeds  in  value  that  of  another  by  more  than 
two  thousand  fold!  When  the  fruit  is  of  very  large  size,  the 
number  produced  is  few  (p.  45) ;  when  of  small  size,  many  are 
produced.  No  less  astonishing  (p.  33)  is  the  variation  in  the  shape 
of  the  fruit,  the  typical  form  apparently  is  egg-like,  but  this 
becomes  either  drawn  out  into  a  cylinder,  or  shortened  into  a  flat 
disc.  We  have  also  an  almost  infinite  diversity  in  the  colour  and 
state  of  surface  of  the  fruit,  in  the  hardness  both  of  the  shell  and  of 
the  flesh,  and  in  the  taste  of  the  flesh,  which  is  either  extremely 
sweet,  faiinaceous,  or  slightly  bitter.  The  seeds  also  differ  in  a 
slight  degree  in  shape,  and  wonderfully  in  size  (p.  34),  namely, 
from  six  or  seven  to  more  than  twenty-five  millimetres  in  length. 

In  the  varieties  which  grow  upright  or  do  not  run  and  climb, 
the  tendrils,  though  useless  (p.  31),  are  either  present  or  are  repre- 
sented by  various  semi-monstrous  organs,  or  are  quite  absent.  The 
tendrils  are  even  absent  in  some  running  varieties  in  which  the 
stems  are  much  elongated.  It  is  a  singular  fact  that  (p.  31)  in  all 
the  varieties  with  dwarfed  stems,  the  leaves  closely  resemble  each 
( ther  in  shape. 

Those  naturalists  who  believe  in  the  immutability  of  species 
often  maintain  that,  even  in  the  most  variable  forms,  the 
characters  which  they  consider  of  specific  value  are  unchange- 
able. To  give  an  example  from  a  conscientious  writer,^^^ 
who,  rely^ing  on  the  labours  of  M.  Naudin,  and  referring  to 
the  species  of  Cucurbita,  says,  "  au  milieu  de  toutes  les  varia- 
tions du  fruit,  les  tiges,  les  feuilles,  les  calices,  les  corolles,  les 
etamines  restent  invariables  dans  chacune  d'elles."  Yet  M. 
Naudin,  in  describing  Cucurbita  pepo  (p.  30),  says,  "  Ici, 
d'ailleurs,  ce  ne  sont  pas  seulement  les  fruits  qui  varient,  c'est 
aussi  le  feuillage  et  tout  le  port  de  la  plante.  Neanmoins,  je 
CTois  qu'on  la  distinguera  toujours  facilement  des  deux  autres 
especes,  si  Ton  veut   ne   pas   perdre   de   vue   les   caracteres 

"*  Gartner,     *  Bastarderzeugung,'  Nicotiana,     see     Kolreuter,     'Zv/eite 

1849,  s.  87,  and  s.   169  with  respect  Forts.,'  1764,  s.  53  ;  though  this  is  a 

to  Maize;  on  Verbascum,  ibid.,  ss.  92  somewhat  different  case, 
and  181;  also  his  '  Kenntniss  der  Be-  '^^  '  De  I'Espfece,'  par  M.   Godrou, 

frushtuug,"  s.  137.     With  respect  to  torn,  ii.  p.  64. 


382  CUCUHBITACEOUS  PLANTS.  Chap.  X. 

differentiels  qno  je  m'efforce  de  faire  ressortir.  Cea 
caracteres  sunt  quelquefois  peu  marques :  il  arrive  meme  que 
plusieurs  d'entre  eux  s'effacent  presque  entierement,  mais  il  en 
reste  toujours  quelques-uns  qui  remettent  I'observateui-  sur  la 
voie."  Now  let  it  be  noted  what  a  difference,  with  regard  to 
the  immutability  of  the  so-called  specific  characters  this 
paragraph  produces  on  the  mind,  from  that  above  quoted  from 
M.  Godron. 

I  will  add  another  remark  :  naturalists  continually  assert 
that  no  important  organ  varies ;  but  in  saying  this  they 
unconsciously  argue  in  a  vicious  circle ;  for  if  an  organ,  let  it 
be  what  it  may,  is  highly  variable,  it  is  regarded  as  un- 
important, and  under  a  systematic  point  of  view  this  is  quite 
correct.  But  as  long  as  constancy  is  thus  taken  as  the 
criterion  of  importance,  it  will  indeed  be  long  before  an 
important  organ  can  be  shown  to  be  inconstant.  The  enlarged 
form  of  the  stigmas,  and  their  sessile  position  on  the  summit 
of  the  ovary,  must  be  considered  as  important  characters,  and 
were  used  by  Gasparini  to  separate  certain  pumpkins  as  a 
distinct  genus  ;  but  Naudin  says  (p.  20),  these  parts  have  no 
constancy,  and  in  the  flowers  of  the  Turban  varieties  of  C. 
maxima  they  sometimes  resume  their  ordinary  structure. 
Again,  in  C.  maxima,  the  carj)els  (p.  19)  which  form  the 
turban  project  even  as  much  as  two-thirds  of  their  length 
out  of  the  receptacle,  and  this  latter  part  is  thus  reduced  to  a 
sort  of  platform  ;  but  this  remarkable  structure  occurs  only 
in  certain  varieties,  and  graduates  into  the  common  form  in 
which  the  carpels  are  almost  entirely  enveloped  within  the 
receptacle.  In  C.  moschata  the  ovarium  (p.  50)  varies  greatly 
in  shape,  being  oval,  nearly  spherical,  or  cylindrical,  more 
or  less  swollen  in  the  upper  part,  or  constricted  round  the 
middle,  and  either  straight  or  curved.  When  tlie  ovarium  is 
short  and  oval  the  interior  structure  does  not  differ  from  that 
of  G  maxima  and  pejpo,  but  when  it  is  elongated  the  carpels 
occupy  only  the  terminal  and  swollen  portion.  I  may  add 
that  in  one  variety  of  the  cucumber  (Cucumis  sativus')  the 
fruit  regularly  contains  five  carpels  instead  of  three. ^*°     I 

^^  Naudin,  in  •  Annal.  des  Sc.  Nat.,'  4th  ser.  Bot.  torn.  xi.  1859,  p.  28. 


Chap.  X.        CUCUEBITACEOUS  PLANTS.  383 

presume  *"/liat  it  will  not  be  disputed  that  we  here  have 
instances  of  great  variability  in  organs  of  tlie  highest 
physiological  importance,  and  with  most  plants  of  the  highest 
classificatory  importance. 

Sa^eret^*^  and  Naudin  found  that  the  cucumber  {C.  sativus) 
could  not  be  crossed  with  any  other  species  of  the  genus ;  therefore 
no  doubt  it  is  specifically  distinct  from  the  melon.  This  will 
appear  to  most  persons  a  superfluous  statement ;  yet  we  hear  from 
Naudin  ^*^  that  there  is  a  race  of  melons,  in  which  the  fruit  is 
so  like  that  of  the  cucumber,  "  both  externally  and  internally,  that 
it  is  hardly  possible  to  distinguish  the  one  from  the  other  except 
by  the  leaves."  The  varieties  of  the  melon  seem  to  be  endless, 
for  Naudin  after  six  years'  study  had  not  come  to  the  end  of  them  : 
he  divides  them  into  ten  sections,  including  numerous  sub- varieties 
which  all  intercross  with  perfect  ease.^^^  Of  the  forms  considered 
by  Naudin  to  be  varieties,  botanists  have  made  thirty  distinct 
species !  "  and  they  had  not  the  slightest  acquaintance  with  the 
multitude  of  new  forms  which  have  appeared  since  their  time/' 
Nor  is  the  creation  of  so  many  species  at  all  surprising  when  we 
consider  how  strictly  their  characters  are  transmitted  by  seed, 
and  how  wonderfully  they  differ  in  appearance :  "  Mira  est  quidem 
foliorum  et  habitus  diversitas,  sed  multo  magis  fructuum,"  says 
Naudin.  The  fruit  is  the  valuable  part,  and  this,  in  accordance 
with  the  common  rule,  is  the  most  modified  part.  Some  melons 
are  only  as  large  as  small  plums,  others  weigh  as  much  as  sixty-six 
pounds.  One  variety  has  a  scarlet  fruit!  Another  is  not  more 
than  an  inch  in  diameter,  but  sometimes  more  than  a  yard  in 
length,  "twisting  about  in  all  directions  like  a  serpent."  It  is 
a  singular  fact  that  in  this  latter  variety  many  parts  of  the  plant, 
namely,  the  stems,  the  footstalks  of  the  female  flowers,  the  middle 
lobe  of  the  leaves,  and  especially  the  ovarium,  as  well  as  the  mature 
fruit,  all  show  a  strong  tendency  to  become  elongated.  Several 
varieties  of  the  melon  are  interesting  from  assuming  the  charateristic 
features  of  distinct  species  and  even  of  distinct  though  allied 
genera :  thus  the  serpent-melon  has  some  resemblance  to  the  fruit 
of  Trichosanthes  anguina ;  we  have  seen  that  other  varieties  closely 
resemble  cucumbers;  some  Egyptian  varieties  have  their  seeds 
attached  to  a  portion  of  the  pulp,  and  this  is  characteristic  of 
certain  wild  forms.    Lastly,  a  variety  of  melon  from  Algiers  is 


J"  '  M&moire  sur  les  Cucurbitacees,*  Memoir  on  Cucumis  in  '  Annal.  des  Sc. 

1826,  pp.  6,  24.  Nat.,'  4th  series,  Bot.  torn.  xi.  1859, 

1*2  '  Flore    des  Serros,'  Oct.   1861,  p.  5. 
quoted    in    '  Gardener's     Chronicle,*  ^*^  See   also   Sagoret's    '  Memoire/ 

1861,  p.  1135.    I  have  often  consulted  p.  7. 
ami  taken  some  facth  from  M.  Naudin's 


384  TREES  :  Chap  X. 

remarkable  from  announcing  its  maturity  by  "  a  spontaneous 
and  almost  sudden  dislocation/'  when  deep  cracks  suddenly  appear, 
and  the  fruit  falls  to  pieces;  and  this  occurs  with  the  wild  G.  momor- 
dica.  Finally,  M.  Naudin  well  remarks  that  this  "  extraordinary 
production  of  races  and  varieties  by  a  single  species  and  their 
permanence  when  not  interfered  with  by  crossing,  are  phenomena 
well  calculated  to  cause  reflection." 


Useful  and  Ornamental  Trees. 

Trees  deserve  a  passing  notice  on  account  of  the  numerous  varieties 
which  they  present,  differing  in  their  precocity,  in  their  manner  of 
growth,  their  foliage,  and  bark.  Thus  of  the  common  ash  (Fraxinus 
excelsior)  the  catalogue  of  Messrs.  Lawson  of  Edinburgh  includes 
twenty-one  varieties,  some  of  which  differ  much  in  their  bark; 
there  is  a  yellow,  a  streaked  reddish-white,  a  purple,  a  wart-barked 
and  a  fungous-barked  variety .-^^^  Of  hollies  no  less  than  eighty-four 
varieties  are  grown  alongside  each  other  in  Mr.  Paul's  nursery.^^^ 
In  the  case  of  trees,  all  the  recorded  varieties,  as  far  as  I  can  find 
out,  have  been  suddenly  produced  by  one  single  act  of  variation. 
The  length  of  time  required  to  raise  many  generations,  and  the  little 
value  set  on  the  fanciful  varieties,  explains  how  it  is  that  successive 
modifications  have  not  been  accumulated  by  selection ;  hence, 
also,  it  follows  that  we  do  not  here  meet  with  sub- varieties  subor- 
dinate to  varieties,  and  these  again  subordinate  to  higher  groups. 
On  the  Continent,  however,  where  the  forests  are  more  carefully 
attended  to  than  in  England,  Alph.  De  CandoUe^^'^  says  that  there 
is  not  a  forester  who  does  not  search  for  seeds  from  that  variety 
which  he  esteems  the  most  valuable. 

Our  useful  trees  have  seldom  been  exposed  to  any  great  change 
of  conditions ;  they  have  not  been  richly  manured,  and  the  English 
kinds  grow  under  their  proper  climate.  Yet  in  examining  extensive 
beds  of  seedlings  in  nursery-gardens  considerable  differences  may 
be  generally  observed  in  them;  and  whilst  touring  in  England 
I  have  been  surprised  at  the  amount  of  difference  in  the  appearance 
of  the  same  species  in  our  hedgerows  and  woods.  But  as  plants 
vary  so  much  in  a  truly  wild  state,  it  would  be  difficult  for  even 
a  skilful  botanist  to  pronounce  whether,  as  I  believe  to  be  the 
case,  hedgerow  trees  vary  more  than  those  growing  in  a  primeval 
forest.  Trees  when  planted  by  man  in  woods  or  hedges  do  not 
grow  where  they  would  naturally  be  able  to  hold  their  place 
against  a  host  of  competitors,  and  are  therefore  exposed  to  conditions 
not  strictly  natural :  even  this  slight  change  would  probably  suffice 
to  cause  seedlings  raised  from  such  trees  to  be  variable.  Whether 
or  not  our  half-wild  English  trees,  as  a  general  rule,  are  more 


'**  Loudon's  '  Arboretuu;  et  Fruti-       109^5. 
cetum,'  vol.  li.  p.  1217.  ^'-^   '  Geograph.  Bot.,'  p.  1096. 

"*  •  Gardener's  Chro&icle,'  1866,  p. 


Chap.  X.  TKEES.  385 

variable  than  trees  growing  in  their  native  forests,  there  can  hardly 
be  a  doubt  that  they  have  yielded  a  greater  number  of  strongly- 
marked  and  singular  variations  of  structure. 

In  manner  of  growth,  we  have  weeping  or  pendulous  varieties 
of  the  willow,  ash,  elm,  oak,  and  yew,  and  other  trees ;  and  this 
weeping  habit  is  sometimes  inherited,  though  in  a  singularly 
capricious  manner.  In  the  Lombardy  poplar,  and  in  certain 
fastigiate  or  pyramidal  varieties  of  thorns,  junipers,  oaks,  &c.,  we 
have  an  opposite  kind  of  growth.  The  Hessian  oak,^*'^  which  is 
famous  from  its  fastigiate  habit  and  size,  bears  hardly  any  resem- 
blance in  general  appearance  to  a  common  oak ;  "  its  acorns  are 
not  sure  to  produce  plants  of  the  same  habit ;  some,  however,  turn 
out  the  same  as  the  parent-tree."  Another  fastigiate  oak  is  said 
to  have  been  found  wild  in  the  Pyrenees,  and  this  is  a  surprising 
circumstance;  it  generally  comes  so  true  by  seed,  that  De  Candolle 
considered  it  as  specifically  distinct.^^^  The  fastigiate  Juniper 
(J.  suecica)  likewise  transmits  its  character  by  seed.^"*^  Dr.  Falconer 
informs  me  that  in  the  Botanic  Gardens  at  Calcutta  the  great  heat 
caused  apple-trees  to  become  fastigiate  ;  and  we  thus  see  the  same 
result  following  from  the  effects  of  climate  and  from  some  unknown 
cause.^^° 

In  foliage  we  have  variegated  leaves  which  are  often  inherited , 
dark  purple  or  red  leaves,  as  in  the  hazel,  barberry,  and  beech, 
the  colour  in  these  two  latter  trees  being  sometimes  strongly  and 
sometimes  weakly  inherited ; ^^^  deeply- cut  leaves;  and  leaves 
covered  with  prickles,  as  in  the  variety  of  the  holly  well  called 
ferox,  which  is  said  to  reproduce  itself  by  seetl.^^^  In  fact,  nearly 
all  the  peculiar  varieties  evince  a  tendency,  more  or  less  strongly 
marked,  to  reproduce  themselves  by  seed.^^^  This  is  to  a  certain 
extent  the  case,  according  to  Bosc,^^*  with  three  varieties  of  the 
elm,  namely,  the  broad-leafed,  lime-leafed,  and  twisted  elm,  in  which 
latter  the  fibres  of  the  wood  are  twisted.  Even  with  the  hetero- 
phyllous hornbeam  (Carpinus  hetulus),  which  bears  on  each  twig 
leaves  of  two  shapes,  "  several  plants  raised  from  seed  all  retained 
"the  same  peculiarity." ^^^  I  will  add  only  one  other  remarkable 
case  of  variation  in  foliage,  namely,  the  occurrence  of  two  sub- 
varieties  of  the  ash  with  simple  instead  of  pinnated  leaves,  and 


"^  'Gardener's   Chron.,'    1842,  p.  graph.  Bot.,'  p.   1083.     Verlot,  'Stir 

?.6.  la  Production  des  Variete's,'  1865  ;  p. 

^■'^  Loudon's  'Arboretum  et  Fruti-  55  for  the  Barberry. 

celTira,*  Yol.  iii.  p.  1731.  ^^^  Loudon's  'Arboretum  et  Fruti- 

i^»  Ibid.,'  vol.  iv.  p.  2489.  cetum,'  vol.  ii.  p.  508. 

^"  Godron  ('  De  I'Espfece,'  tom.  ii.  i^^  Veriot,    '  Des    Varietes,'  1865, 

p.  91)  describes  four  varieties  of  Ro-  p.  92. 

binia  remarkable  from  their  manner  ^^*  Loudon's  '  Arboretum  et  Fruti- 

of  growth.  cetum,'  vol.  iii.  p.  1376. 

1"  'Journal    of    a     Horticultural  '^^  '  Gardener's    Chronicle,'    1841, 

Tour,  by  Caledonian  Hort.  Soc.,'  1823,  p.  687. 
p.   107.      Alph.    De   Candolle,   '  Geo- 

36 


386  TKEES.  Chap.  ^ 

wliicli  generally  transmit  their  character  by  seed.^-^^  The  occur- 
rence, in  trees  belonging  to  widely  different  orders,  of  weeping 
and  fastigate  varieties,  and  of  trees  bearing  deeply  cut,  variegated, 
and  purple  leaves,  shows  that  these  deviations  of  structure  must 
result  from  some  very  general  physiological  laws. 

Differences  in  general  appearance  and  foliage,  not  more  strongly 
marked  than  those  above  indicated,  have  led  good  observers  to 
rank  as  distinct  species  certain  forms  which  are  now  known  to  be 
mere  varieties.  Thus,  a  plane-tree  long  cultivated  in  England 
was  considered  by  almost  every  one  as  a  North  American  species  : 
but  is  now  ascertained  by  old  records,  as  I  am  informed  by  Dr. 
Hooker,  to  be  a  variety.  So,  again,  the  Thuja  pendula  or  filiformis 
was  ranked  by  such  good  observers  as  Lambert,  Wallich,  and 
others,  as  a  true  species ;  but  it  is  now  known  that  the  original 
plants,  five  in  number,  suddenly  appeared  in  a  bed  of  seedlings, 
raised  at  Mr.  Loddige's  nursery,  from  T.  orien talis;  and  Dr.  Hooker 
has  adduced  excellent  evidence  that  at  Turin  seeds  of  2'.  pendula 
have  reproduced  the  parent  form,  T.  orientalis}'"'^ 

Every  one  must  have  noticed  how  certain  individual  trees  regu- 
larly put  forth  and  shed  their  leaves  earlier  or  later  than  others 
of  the  same  species.  There  is  a  famous  horse-chesnut  in  the 
Tuileries  which  is  named  from  leafing  so  much  earlier  than  the 
others.  There  is  also  an  oak  near  Edinburgh  which  retains  its 
leaves  to  a  very  late  period.  These  differences  have  been  attributed 
by  some  authors  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  in  which  the  trees  grow ; 
but  Archbishop  Whately  grafted  an  early  thorn  on  a  late  one,  and 
vi'-e  versa,  and  both  grafts  kept  to  their  proper  periods,  which 
differed  by  about  a  fortnight,  as  if  they  still  grew  on  their  own 
stocks.^^^  There  is  a  Cornish  variety  of  the  elm  which  is  almost 
an  evergreen,  and  is  so  tender  that  the  shoots  are  often  killed 
by  the  frost ;  and  the  varieties  of  the  Turkish  oak  ( Q.  cerris)  may 
be  arranged  as  deciduous,  sub-evergreen,  and  evergreen.^^^ 

Scotch  Fir  {Pinus  sylvestris). — I  allude  to  this  tree  as  it  bears  on 
the  question  of  the  greater  variability  of  our  hedgerow  trees  com- 
I3ared  with  those  under  strictly  natural  conditions.  A  well-informed 
writer  ^^°  states  that  the  Scotch  fir  presents  few  varieties  in  its 
native  Scotch  forests;  but  that  it  ''varies  much  in  figure  and 
"  foliage,  and  in  the  size,  shape,  and  colour  of  its  cones,  when  several 
"  generations  have  been  produced  away  from  its  native  locality." 
There  is  little  doubt  that  the  highland  and  lowland  varieties  differ 
in  the  value  of  their  timber,  and  that  they  can  be  jDropagated  truly 


1-^  Godron,  '  De  I'Espfece,'  torn.  ii.  ^^*  Quoted   from   Royal  Irish  Aca- 

p,  89.    lu  Loudon's  '  Gardener's  Mag.,'  demy  in  '  Gardener's  Chron.,'  1841,  p. 

vol.    xii.,  1836,  p.  371,  a  variegated  767. 

bushy  ash  is  described  and  figured,  as  ^^^  Loudon's  '  Arboretum  et  Fruti- 

having  simple  leaves  ;  it  originated  in  cetum  :'    for  Elm,  see  vol.  iii.  p.  1376  ; 

Ireland.  ^  for  Oak,  p.  1846. 

1^^  'Gardener'-   Chron.,'    1863,  p.  ^'">  'Gardener's  Chronicle,' 184?,  p 

575.  822. 


Chap.  X.  TREES.  387 

by  seed ;  tlins  justifying  Loudon's  remark,  that  ''  a  varioty  is  often 
"  of  as  much  imiDortauce  as  a  species,  and  sometimes  far  more  so."^^^ 
1  may  mention  one  rather  important  point  in  wiiich  this  tree  occa- 
sionally varies;  in  the  classification  of  the  Coniferae,  sections  are 
founded  on  whether  two,  three,  or  fiye  leaves  are  included  in  the 
same  sheath ;  the  Scotch  fir  has  properly  only  two  leaves  thus 
enclosed,  but  specimens  have  been  observed  with  groups  of  three 
leaves  in  a  sheath.^^^  Besides  these  dilierences  in  the  semi-culti- 
vated Scotch  fir,  there  are  in  several  parts  of  Europe  natural  or 
geograpliical  races,  which  have  been  ranked  by  some  authors  as 
distinct  species.^*^^  Loudon ^^^  considers  F.  pumiiio,  with  its  several 
sub-varieties,  as  mugJms,  nana,  &c.,which  differ  much  when  planted 
in  different  soils,  and  only  come  "tolerably  true  from  seed,"  as 
alpine  varieties  of  the  Scotch  fir ;  if  this  were  proved  to  be  the  case, 
it  would  be  an  interesting  fact  as  showing  that  dwarfing  from  long 
exposure  to  a  severe  climate  is  to  a  certain  extent  inherired. 

The  Hawthorn  (Cratceyus  oocyacantha)  has  varied  much.  Besides 
endless  slighter  variations  in  the  form  of  the  leaves,  and  in  the  size, 
hardness,  fleshiness,  and  shape  of  the  berries,  Loudon  ^^^  enumerates 
twenty-nine  well-marked  varieties.  Besides  those  cultivated  for 
their  pretty  flowers,  there  are  others  with  golden-yellow,  black,  and 
whitish  berries;  others  with  woolly  berries,  and  others  with  re- 
curved thorns.  Loudon  truly  remarks  that  the  chief  reason  why 
the  hawthorn  has  yielded  more  varieties  than  most  other  trees, 
is  that  nurserymen  select  any  remarkable  variety  out  of  the 
immense  beds  of  seedlings  which  are  annually  raised  for  making 
hedges,  'i'he  flowers  of  the. hawthorn  usually  include  from  one  to 
three  pistils;  but  in  two  varieties,  named  monoyyna  and  sihirici, 
there  is  only  a  single  pistil ;  and  d'Asso  states  that  the  common 
thorn  in  Spain  is  constantly  in  this  state.^'^^  There  is  also  a  variety 
which  is  apetalous,  or  has  its  petals  reduced  to  mere  rudiments. 
The  famous  Glastonbury  thorn  flowers  and  leafs  towards  the  end  of 
December,  at  which  time  it  bears  berries  produced  from  an  earlier 
crop  of  flowers.^*^^  It  is  worth  notice  that  several  varieties  of  the 
hawthorn,  as  well  as  of.  the  lime  and  juniper,  are  very  distinct  in 
their  foliage  and  habit  whilst  young,  but  in  the  course  of  thirty  or 
forty  years  become  extremely  like  each  other  ;"^  thus  reminding  us 
of  the  well-known  fact  that  the  deodar,  the  cedar  of  Lebanon,  and 


'®^  'Arboretum     et     Fruticetum,'  '®^ 'Arboretum  et  Fruticetum/rol. 

vol.  iv.  p.  2150.  iv.  pp.  2159  and  2189. 

162  'Gardener's    Chron./    1852,   p.  i"  Jbid.,' vol.  ii.  p.  830;  Loudon's 

G93.  '  Gardener's    Mag.,'   vol.  yi.  183u,  p. 

'6'  See   *  Beitrage    zur    Kenntniss  714. 

Europaischer     Pinus-arten    von     Dr.  ^'^^  Loudon's  '  Arboretum    et  Fru- 

Christ :  Flora,  1864.'     He  shows  that  ticetum,'  vol.  ii.  p.  834. 

in  the  Ober-Engadin  P.  sylvestris  and  ^^''   Loudon's  '  Gardener's  Mag.,'  vol, 

montana  are    connected  by  interme-  ix.  1833,  p.  123. 

diate  links.  ^"^  Ibid.,  vol.  xi.  1835,  p.  503. 


388  FLOWERS.  Chap.  X. 

that  of  tlie  Atlas,  are  distinguished  with  the  greatest  ease  whilst 
young,  but  with  difficulty  when  old. 

rLOWEES. 

1  SHALL  not  for  several  reasons  treat  the  yariability  of  plants  which 
are  cultivated  for  their  flowers  alone  at  any  great  length.  Many  of 
our  favourite  kinds  in  their  present  state  are  the  descendants  of 
two  or  more  species  crossed  and  commingled  together,  and  this 
circumstance  alone  would  render  it  difficult  to  detect  the  difference 
due  to  variation.  For  instance,  our  Eoses,  Petunias,  Calceolarias, 
Fuchsias,  Verbenas,  Gladioli,  Pelargoniums,  &c.,  certainly  have  had 
a  multiple  origin.  A  botanist  well  acquainted  with  the  parent- 
forms  would  probably  detect  some  curious  structural  differences  in 
their  crossed  and  cultivated  descendant;  and  he  would  certainly 
observe  many  new  and  remarkable  constitutional  peculiarities.  I 
will  give  a  few  instances,  all  relating  to  the  Pelargonium,  and  taken 
chiefly  from  Mr.  Beck,^*^^  a  famous  cultivator  of  this  plant :  some 
varieties  require  more  water  than  others;  some  are  "  very  impatient 
of  the  knife  if  too  greedily  used  in  making  cuttiags ;"  some,  when 
potted,  scarcely  "  show  a  root  at  the  outside  of  the  ball  of  the  earth ;" 
one  variety  requires  a  certain  amount  of  confinement  in  the  pot  to 
make  it  throw  up  a  flower-stem ;  some  varieties  bloom  well  at  the 
commencement  of  the  season,  others  at  the  close ;  one  variety  is 
known,^'*^  which  will  stand  "  even  pine-apple  top  and  bottom  heat, 
without  looking  any  more  drawn  than  if  it  had  stood  in  a  common 
greenhouse ;  and  Blanche  Fleur  seems  as  if  made  on  purpose  for 
growing  in  winter,  like  many  bulbs,  and  to  rest  all  summer."  These 
odd  constitutional  peculiarities  would  enable  a  plant  in  a  state  of 
nature  to  become  adapted  to  widely  different  circumstances  and 
climates. 

Plowers  possess  Uttle  interest  under  our  present  point  of  view, 
because  they  have  been  almost  exclusively  attended  to  and  selected 
for  their  beautiful  colour,  size,  perfect  outline,  and  manner  of 
growth.  In  these  particulars  hardly  one  long-cultivated  flower  can 
be  named  which  has  not  varied  greatly.  What  does  a  florist  care 
for  the  shape  and  structure  of  the  organs  of  fructification,  unless, 
indeed,  they  add  to  the  beauty  of  the  flower  ?  When  this  is  the 
case,  flowers  become  modified  in  important  points;  stamens  and 
pistils  may  be  converted  into  petals,  and  additional  petals  may  be 
developed,  as  in  all  double  flowers.  The  process  of  gradual  selection 
by  which  flowers  have  been  rendered  more  and  more  double,  each 
step  in  the  process  of  conversion  being  inherited,  has  been  recorded 
in  several  instances.  In  the  so-called  double  flowers  of  the 
CompositaB,  the  corollas  of  the  central  florets  are  greatly  modified, 
and  the  modifications  are  likewise  inherited.    In  the  columbine 


'"»  'Gardener's    Chron.,'  1845,    p.       dener,*    1860,   p.  377.     See,  also  Mr. 

823.  Beck,  on  the  habits  of  Queen  Mab,  in 

^^•^  D.   Beaton,  in    'Cottage    Gar-       '  Gardener's  Chronicio,'  1845,  p.  226. 


Chap.  X.  FLOWERS.  389 

i^Aquihgia  vulgaris)  some  of  the  stamens  are  converted  into  petals 
having  the  shape  of  nectaries,  one  neatly  fitting  into  the  other ;  but 
in  one  variety  they  are  converted  into  simple  petals.^^^  In  the  "  hose 
in  hose "'  primnlse,  the  calyx  becomes  brightly  coloured  and  enlarged 
so  as  to  resemble  a  corolla;  and  Mr.  W.  Wooler  informs  me  that 
this  peculiarity  is  transmitted ;  for  he  crossed  a  common  polyanthus 
with  one  having  a  coloured  calyx,^'^  and  some  of  the  seedlings 
inherited  the  coloured  calyx  during  at  least  six  generations.  In  the 
"hen-and- chicken"  daisy  the  main  flower  is  surrounded  by  a  brood 
of  small  flowers  developed  from  buds  in  the  axils  of  the  scales  of  the  in- 
volucre. A  wonderful  poppy  has  been  described,  in  which  the  stamens 
are  converted  into  pistils ;  and  so  strictly  was  this  peculiarity  inherited 
that,  out  of  154  seedlings,  one  alone  reverted  to  the  ordinary  and 
common  type.^^^  Of  the  cocks-comb  (Celosia  cristata),  which  is  an 
annual,  there  are  several  races  in  which  the  flower-stem  is  wonder- 
fully "fasciated"  or  compressed;  and  one  has  been  exhibited^'* 
actually  eighteen  inches  in  breadth.  Peloric  races  of  Gloxinia 
speciosa  and  Antirrhinum  majus  can  be  propagated  by  seed,  and 
they  differ  in  a  wonderful  manner  from  the  typical  form  both  in 
structure  and  appearance. 

A  much  more  remarkable  modification  has  been  recorded  by  Sir 
William  and  Dr.  Hooker ^^°  in  Begonia  frigida.  This  plant  properly 
produces  male  and  female  flowers  on  the  same  fascicles ;  and  in  the 
female  flowers  the  perianth  is  superior ;  but  a  plant  at  Kew  pro- 
duced, besides  the  ordinary  flowers,  others  which  graduated  towards 
a  perfect  hermaphrodite  structure ;  and  in  these  flowers  the  perianth 
was  inferior.  To  show  the  importance  of  this  modification  under  a 
classificatory  point  of  view,  I  may  quote  what  Prof.  Harvey  says, 
namely,  that  had  it  "occurred  in  a  state  of  nature,  and  had  a 
botanist  collected  a  plant  with  such  flowers,  he  would  not  only  have 
placed  it  in  a  distinct  genus  from  Begonia,  but  would  probably 
have  considered  it  as  the  type  of  a  new  natural  order."  This  modi- 
fication cannot  in  one  sense  be  considered  as  a  monstrosity,  for 
analogous  structures  naturally  occur  in  other  orders,  as  with 
Saxifragse  and  Aristolochiaceae.  The  interest  of  the  case  is  largely 
added  to  by  Mr.  C.  W.  Crocker's  observation  that  seedlings  from 
the  normal  flowers  produced  plants  which  bore,  in  about  the  same 
proportion  as  the  parent-plant,  hermaphrodite  flowers  having  inferior 
perianths.  The  hermaphrodite  flowers  fertilised  with  their  own 
pollen  were  sterile. 

If  florists  had  attended  to,  selected,  and  propagated  by  seed  other 


*^^  Moquin-Tandon,  '  Elements   de  vol.  iv.  p.  322. 

T^j  atologie,'  1841,  p.  213.  i"  '  Botanical  Magazine,' tab.  5160, 

^'2  Se&    also    'Cottage    Gardener,'  fig.  4;  Dr.    Hooker,    in    'Gardener's 

1860,  p.  133.  Chron.,'  1860,  p.  190;  Prof.  Harvey, 

^'3  Quoted    by  Alph.  de  CandoUe,  in  'Gardener's  Chron.,'  1860,  p.  145  ; 

'Bibl.  Univ.,'  November  1862,  p.  58.  '    Mr.  Crocker,  in  '  Gardener's  Chron.,' 


174 


Knight,  'Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,'       1861,  p.  1092. 


390  FLO  WEES.  Chap.  X. 

modifications  of  structure  besides  those  which  are  beautiful,  a  host 
of  curious  varieties  would  certainly  have  been  raised;  and  they 
would  probably  have  transmitted  their  characters  so  truly  that  the 
cultivator  would  have  felt  aggrieved,  as  in  the  case  of  culinary 
vegetables,  if  his  whole  bed  had  not  presented  a  uniform  appearance. 
Florists  have  attended  in  some  instances  to  the  leaves  of  their  plant, 
and  have  thus  produced  the  most  elegant  and  symmetrical  patterns 
of  white,  red,  and  green,  which,  as  in  the  case  of  the  pelargonium, 
are  sometimes  strictly  inherited.^^^  Any  one  who  will  habitually 
examine  highly-cultivated  flowers  in  gardens  and  greenhouses  will 
observe  numerous  deviations  in  structure ;  but  most  of  these  must 
be  ranked  as  mere  monstrosities,  and  are  only  so  far  interesting  as 
showing  how  jDlastic  the  organisation  becomes  under  high  cultiva- 
tion. From  this  point  of  view  such  works  as  Professor  Moquin- 
Tandon's  '  Teratologic '  are  highly  instructive. 

Bases. — These  flowers  offer  an  instance  of  a  number  of  forms 
generally  ranked  as  species,  namely,  R.  cenUfoHa,  gallica,  alba, 
damascena,  spijiosissima,  bracteata,  indica,  semperflorens,  moschata, 
&c.,  which  have  largely  varied  and  been  intercrossed.  The  genus 
Eosa  is  a  notoriously  difficult  one,  and,  though  some  of  the  above 
forms  are  admitted  by  all  botanists  to  be  distinct  species,  others  are 
doubtful ;  thus,  with  respect  to  the  British  forms,  Babington  makes 
seventeen,  and  Bentham  only  five  species.  The  hybrids  from  some 
of  the  most  distinct  forms — for  instance,  from  B.  indica,  fertilised 
by  the  pollen  oi'  R.  centifolia — produce  an  abundance  of  seed ;  I 
state  this  on  the  authority  of  Mr.  Eivers,^"  from  whose  work  I  have 
drawn  mosi  of  the  following  statements.  As  almost  all  the  aboriginal 
forms  brought  from  different  countries  have  been  crossed  and  re- 
crossed,  it  is  no  wonder  that  Targioni-Tozzetti,  in  speaking  of  the 
common  roses  of  the  Italian  gardens,  remarks  that  "the  native 
country  and  precise  form  of  the  wild  type  of  most  of  them  are 
involved  in  much  uncertainty."^'^  Nevertheless,  Mr.  Elvers  in  re- 
ferring to  R.  indica  (p.  68)  says  that  the  descendants  of  each  group 
may  generally  be  recognized  by  a  close  observer.  The  same  author 
often  speaks  of  roses  as  having  been  a  little  hybridised ;  but  it  is 
evident  that  in  very  many  cases  the  diiferences  due  to  variation 
and  to  hybridisation  can  now  only  be  conjecturally  distinguished. 

The  species  have  varied  both  by  seed  and  by  bud  ;  such  modified 
buds  being  often  called  by  gardeners  sports.  In  the  following 
chapter  I  shall  fully  discuss  this  latter  subject,  and  shall  show  that 
bud-variations  can  be  propagated  not  only  by  grafting  and  budding, 
but  often  by  seed.  Whenever  a  new  rose  appears  with  any 
peculiar  character,  however  produced,  if  it  yields  seed,  Mr.  Eivers 

"«Alph.  de    Candolle,  'Geograph.  Horticulture,' 1861,  p.  64. 

Bot.,'  p.    1083;  'Gardener's   Chrcn.'  i"  '  Eose     Amateur's    Guide,'     T. 

1861,  p.  433.     The  inheritance  of  the  Rivers,  1837,  p.  21. 

white  and  golden  zones  in  Pelargonium  ^^*  'Journal    Hort.  Sec.,'  vol.   ix., 

largely  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  1855,  p.  182. 
soil.      See  D.  Beaton,  in  '  Joarnal  of 


Chm\  X.  FLOWERS.  391 

(p.  i)  fully  expects  it  to  become  the  parent-type  of  a  new  faioily. 
The  tendency  to  vary  is  so  strong  in  some  kinds,  as  in  the  Village 
Maid  (Elvers,  p.  16),  that  when  grown  in  different  soils  it  varies  so 
much  in  colour  that  it  has  been  thought  to  form  several  distinct 
kinds.  Altogether  the  number  of  kinds  is  very  great :  thus  M. 
Desportes,  in  his  Catalogue  for  1829,  enumerates  2562  as  cultivated 
in  France ;  but  no  doubt  a  large  proportion  of  these  are  merely 
nominal. 

It  would  be  useless  to  specify  the  many  points  of  ditfeienco 
between  the  various  kinds,  but  some  constitutional  peculiarities 
may  be  mentioned.  Several  French  roses  (Rivers,  p.  12)  will  not 
succeed  in  England ;  and  an  excellent  horticulturist  ^^^  remarks, 
that  "  Even  in  the  same  garden  you  will  find  that  a  rose  that  will 
do  nothing  under  a  south  wall  will  do  well  under  a  north  one. 
That  is  the  case  with  Paul  Joseph  here.  It  grows  strongly  and 
blooms  beautifully  close  to  a  north  wall.  For  three  years  seven 
plants  have  done  nothing  under  a  south  wall."  Many  roses  can  be 
forced,  "  many  are  totally  unfit  for  forcing,  among  which  is  General 
Jacqueminot." ^^°  From  the  effects  of  crossing  and  variation 
Mr.  Elvers  enthusiastically  anticipates  (p.  87)  that  the  day  will 
come  when  all  our  roses,  even  moss-roses,  will  -have  evergreen 
foliage,  brilliant  and  fragrani:  flowers,  and  the  habit  of  blooming 
from  June  till  November.  ''  A  distant  view  this  seems,  but  per- 
severance  in  gardening  wall  }  e t.  achieve  wonders,"  as  assuredly  it 
has  already  achieved  wonders. 

It  may  be  worth  while  briefl}'  to  give  the  well-known  history  of 
one  class  of  roses.  In  1798  some  wild  Scotch  roses  (H.  spinvHissima) 
were  transplanted  into  a  garden ;  '^^■-  o.nd  one  of  these  bore  flowers 
slightly  tinged  with  red,  from  which  a  plant  was  raised  with  semi- 
monstrous  flowers,  also  tinged  with  red ;  seedlings  from  this  flower 
were  semi-double,  and  by  continued  selv-^ction,  in  about  nine  or  ten 
years,  eight  sub-varieties  were  raised.  In  the  course  of  less  than 
twenty  years  these  double  Scotch  roses  had  so  much  increased  in 
number  and  kind,  that  twenty- six  w^ell-msrked  varieties,  classed  in 
eight  sections,  were  described  by  Mr.  Sabine.  In  1841  ^**^  it  is  said 
that  three  hundred  varieties  could  be  procured  in  the  nursery- 
gardens  near  Glasgow ;  and  these  are  described  as  blush,  crimson, 
purple,  red,  marbled,  two-coloured,  white,  and  yellow,  and  as 
differing  much  in  the  size  and  shape  of  the  flower. 

Pansy  or  Heartsease  {Viola  tricolor,  &c.). — The  history  of  this 
flower  seems  to  be  j)retty  well  kuown ;  it  was  grown  in  Evelyns 
gardeji  in  1687 ;  but  the  varieties  were  not  attended  to  till  1810-1812, 
when  Lady  Monke,  together  with  Mr.  Leo,  the  well-known  nursery- 


179  The  Eev.  W.  F.  Eadclyffe,  in  isi  Mr.  Sabine,  in  'Transact.  Hort. 

'  Journal  of  Horticulture,'  March  14,  Soc.,'  vol.  iv.  p.  285. 

1865,  p.  207.  "2  '  An  Encyclop.  of  Plants,'  by  J. 

180 '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1861,  p.  C.  Loudon,  1841,  p.  443. 
46. 


392  FLOWERS.  Ghap.  X. 

man,  energetically  commenced  their  culture;  and  in  the  course  of 
a  few  years  twenty  varieties  could  be  purchased,^^  At  about  the 
same  period,  namely  in  1813  or  1814,  Lord  Gambler  collected  some 
wild  plants,  and  his  gardener,  Mr.  Thomson,  cultiyated  them, 
together  with  some  common  garden  varieties,  and  soon  effected  a 
great  improvement.  The  first  great  change  was  the  conversion  of 
the  dark  lines  in  the  centre  of  the  flower  into  a  dark  eye  or  centre, 
which  at  that  period  had  never  been  seen,  but  is  now  considered 
one  of  the  chief  requisites  of  a  first-rate  flower.  In  1835  a  book 
entirely  devoted  to  this  flower  was  published,  and  four  hundred 
named  varieties  were  on  sale.  From  these  circumstances  this  plant 
seemed  to  me  worth  studying,  more  especially  from  the  great 
contrast  between  the  small,  dull,  elongated,  irregular  flowers  of  the 
wild  pansy,  and  the  beautiful,  flat,  symmetrical,  circular,  velvet- 
like flowers,  more  than  two  inches  in  diameter,  magnificently  and 
variously  coloured,  which  are  exhibited  at  our  shows.  But  when  I 
came  to  enquire  more  closely,  I  found  that,  though  the  varieties 
were  so  modern,  yet  that  much  confusion  and  doubt  prevailed 
about  their  parentage.  Florists  believe  that  the  varieties  ^^^  are 
descended  from  several  wild  stocks,  namely,  V.  tricolor,  lutea, 
fjiaadiflora,  amoena,  and  alfaica,  more  or  less  intercrossed.  And 
when  I  looked  to  botanical  works  to  ascertain  whether  these  forms 
ought  to  be  ranked  as  species,  I  found  equal  doubt  and  confusion. 
Vlo/a  altaica  seems  to  be  a  distinct  form,  but  what  part  it  has  played 
in  the  origin  of  our  varieties  I  know  not ;  it  is  said  to  have  been 
crossed  with  F.  lutea.  Viola  artimna^^^  is  now  looked  at  by  all 
botanists  as  a  natural  variety  of  V.  grandiflora ;  and  this  and  V. 
sudetica  have  been  proved  to  be  identical  with  V.  lutea.  The  latter 
and  V.  tricolor  (including  its  admitted  variety  V.  arvensis)  are 
ranked  as  distinct  species  by  Babington,  and  likewise  by  M.  Gay,^*^ 
who  has  paid  particular  attention  to  the  genus;  but  the  specific 
distinction  between  V.  lutta  and  tricolor  is  chiefly  grounded  on  the 
one  being  strictly  and  the  other  not  strictly  perennial,  as  well  as  on 
some  other  slight  and  unimportant  differences  in  the  form  of  the 
stem  and  stipules.  Bentham  unites  these  two  forms ;  and  a  high 
authority  on  such  matters,  Mr.  H.  C.  Watson,^^^  says  that,  "  while 
V.  tricolor  passes  into  V.  arvensis  on  the  one  side,  it  approximates 
BO  much  towards  V.  lutea  and  V.  Curtisii  on  the  other  side,  that  a 
distinction  becomes  scarcely  more  easy  between  them." 

Hence,  after  having  carefully  compared  numerous  varieties,  1 


'*'  Loudon's  '  Gardener's  Magazine,'  ^^^  Quoted  from 'Annales  des  Sci- 

vol.  xi.  1835.  p.  427  ;  also  '  Journal  ences,'  in  the  Companion  to  the*  '  Bot. 

of  Horticulture,'   April    14,    18d3,  p.  Mag.,'  vol.  i.  1835,  p.  159. 

275.                      ,  •^®'  '  Cybele  Britannica,'  vol.   i.   p. 

'**  Loudon's  '  Gardener's  Magazine,'  173.       See  ako   Dr.  Herbert   on  the 

v<!L  viii.  p.  575  :  vol.  ix.  p.  689.  changes  of  colour  in  transplanted  spe- 

^*^  Sir  J.  E.  Smith,  'English  Flora,'  cimens,  and  on  the  natural  variations 

(Tol.  i.  p.  3013.     H.  C.  Watson,  '  Cybele  of  V.  grandiflora,  in  'Transact.  Mort 

Britannica,'  vol.  1.  1847,  p.  181.  See'  vol.  iv.  p.  19. 


Ohap.  X.  FLO  WEBS.  393 

gave  up  the  attempt  as  too  difficult  for  any  one  except  a  professed 
botanist.  Most  of  the  varieties  present  such  inconstant  characters, 
that  when  grown  in  poor  soil,  or  when  flowering  out  of  their  proper 
season,  they  produced  differently  coloured  and  much  smaller 
flowers.  Cultivators  speak  of  this  or  that  kind  as  being  remark- 
ably constant  or  true;  but  by  this  they  do  not  mean,  as  in  other 
cases,  that  the  kind  transmits  its  character  by  seed,  but  that  the 
individual  plant  does  not  change  much  under  culture.  The 
principle  of  inheritance,  however,  does  hold  good  to  a  certain  extent 
even  with  the  fleeting  varieties  of  the  Heartsease,  for  to  gain  good 
Korts  it  is  indispensable  to  sow  the  seed  of  good  sorts.  Neverthe- 
less, in  almost  every  large  seed-bed  a  few  almost  wild  seedlings 
reappear  through  reversion.  On  comparing  the  choicest  varieties 
with  the  nearest  allied  wild  forms,  besides  the  difference  in  the 
size,  outline,  and  colour  of  the  flowers,  the  leaves  sometimes 
differ  in  shape,  as  does  the  calyx  occasionally  in  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  sepals.  The  differences  in  the  form  of  the  nectary 
more  especially  deserve  notice;  because  characters  derived  from 
this  organ  have  been  much  used  in  the  discrimination  of  most  of 
the  species  of  Viola.  In  a  large  number  of  flowers  comjDared  in 
1842  I  found  that  in  the  greater  number  the  nectary  was  straight ; 
in  others  the  extremity  was  a  httle  turned  upwards,  or  downwards, 
or  inwards,  so  as  to  be  completely  hooked ;  in  others,  instead  of 
being  hooked,  it  was  first  turned  rectangularly  downwards,  and 
then  backwards  and  upwards ;  in  others,  the  extremity  was  con- 
siderably enlarged ;  and  lastly,  in  some  the  basal  part  was  depressed, 
becoming,  as  usual,  laterally  compressed  towards  the  extremity, 
In  a  large  number  of  flowers,  on  the  other  hand,  examined  by  me 
in  1856  from  a  nursery-garden  in  a  different  part  of  England,  the 
nectary  hardly  varied  at  all.  Now  M.  Gay  says  that  in  certain 
districts,  especally  in  Auvergne,  the  nectary  of  the  wild  V.  grandi- 
flora  varies  in  the  manner  just  described.  Must  we  conclude  from 
this  that  the  cultivated  varieties  first  mentioned  were  all  descended 
from  V.  grandiflora,  and  that  the  second  lot,  though  having  the 
same  general  appearance,  were  descended  from  V.  tricolor,  of  which 
the  nectary,  according  to  M.  Gay,  is  subject  to  little  variation  ?  Or 
is  it  not  more  probable  that  both  these  wild  forms  would  be  found 
under  other  conditions  to  vary  in  the  same  manner  and  degree, 
thus  showing  that  they  ought  not  to  be  ranked  as  specifically 
distinct  ? 

The  Dahlia  has  been  referred  to  by  almost  every  author  who  has 
written  on  the  variation  of  plants,  because  it  is  believed  that  all  the 
varieties  are  descended  from  a  single  species,  and  because  all  have 
arisen  since  1802  in  France,  and  since  1804  in  Engiand.^^**  Mr. 
Sabine  remarks  that  "  it  seems  as  if  some  period  of  cultivation  had 
been  required  before  the  fixed  qualities  of  the  native  plant  gave 


'^  Salisbury,  in   *  Transact.  Hort.       semi-double  variety  was  produced  in 
Soc.,'voL   i.    i812,   pp.   84,   92.     A       Madrid  in  1790. 


394  FLOWERS.  CuAi\  X 

way  and  began  to  sport  into  those  changes  which  now  so  deh'ght 
jjg»i89  rj}-^Q  flowers  haye  been  greatly  modified  in  shape  from  a 
flat  to  a  globnlar  form.  Anemone  and  ranunculus-like  races/^" 
which  differ  in  the  form  and  arrangement  of  the  florets,  have 
arisen ;  also  dwarfed  races,  one  of  which  is  only  eighteen  inches  m 
height.  The  seeds  vary  much  in  size.  The  petals  are  uniformly 
coloured  or  tipped  or  striped,  and  present  an  almost  infinite 
diversity  of  tints.  Seedlings  of  fourteen  different  colours  ^^^  have 
been  raised  from  the  same  plant;  yet,  as  Mr.  Sabine  has  remarkerl^ 
"many  of  the  seedlings  follow  their  parents  in  colour."  The  period 
of  flowering  has  been  considerably  hastened,  and  this  has  probably 
been  effected  by  continued  selection.  Salisbury,  writing  1808, 
says  that  they  then  flowered  from  September  to  November ;  in 
1828  some  new  dwarf  varieties  began  flowering  in  June;^^^  and 
Mr.  Grieve  informs  me  that  the  dwarf  purple  Zelinda  in  his  garden 
is  in  full  bloom  by  the  middle  of  June  and  sometimes  even  earlier. 
Slight  constitutional  differences  have  been  observed  between  certain 
varieties :  thus,  some  kinds  succeed  much  better  in  one  part  of 
England  than  in  another  ;^^3  and  it  has  been  noticed  that  some 
varieties  require  much  more  moisture  than  others.^^^ 

Such  flowers  as  the  carnation,  common  tulip,  and  hyacinth,  which 
are  believed  to  be  descended,  each  from  a  single  wild  form,  present 
innumerable  varieties,  differing  almost  exclusively  in  the  size,  form, 
and  colour  of  the  flowers.  These  and  some  other  anciently  culti- 
vated plants  which  have  been  long  propagated  by  offsets,  pipings, 
bulbs,  &c.,  become  so  excessively  variable,  that  almost  each  new 
plant  raised  from  seed  forms  a  new  variety,  "  all  of  which  to 
describe  particularly,"  as  old  Gerarde  wrote  in  1597,  "  were  to  roll 
Sisj/phus's  stone,  or  to  number  the  sands." 

hyacinth  (Hyacmthus  orientalis). — It  may,  however,  be  worth 
while  to  give  a  short  account  of  this  plant,  which  was  introduced 
into  England  in  1596  from  the  Levant.^^^  The  petals  of  the  original 
flower,  says  Mr.  Paul,  were  narrow,  wrinkled,  pointed,  and  of  a 
flimsy  texture ;  now  they  are  broad,  smooth,  solid,  and  rounded. 
The  erectness,  breadth,  and  length  of  the  whole  spike,  and  the  size 
of  the  flowers,  have  all  increased.  The  colours  have  been  intensified 
and  diversified.     Gerarde,  in  1597,  enumerates  four,  and  Parkinson, 


1*9  '  Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,'  vol.  iii.,  ^^^  M.  Faivre  has   given  an  inte- 

1820.  p.  225.  resting    account     of    the     successive 

i^»  Loudon's  '  Gardener's  Mag.,'  vol.  variations  of  the  Chinese  primrose, 

vi.,  1830,  p.  77.  since    its    introduction    into    Europe 

131   Loudon's  '  Encyclop.  of  Garden-  about    the    year    1820  :  '  Revue   des 

Ido-,'  p.  1035.  Cours  Scientifiques,'  June,  1869,    p. 

"i^^  'Transact.    Hort.    Soc.,*  vol.  i.  428, 
p.    91;    and     Loudon's     'Gardener's  i^^  The  hpst  and  fullest  account  of 

Mag.,'  vol.  iii.,  1828,  p.  179.  this  plant  which  I  have  met  with  is 

193  Mr.    Wildman,    in  '  Gardener's  by  a  famous  horticulturist,  Mr,  l^aul, 

Chron,,'  184-3,  p.  87.     '  Cottage  Gar-  of     Waltham,    in    the      '  Gardener's 

dencr,'  Apjil  8,  185  3,  p.  33.  Chronicle,*  1864,  p.  342. 


Chap.  X.  PLOWEES.  395 

in  1629,  eiglit  varieties.  Now  the  rarieties  are  very  numerous,  and 
they  were  still  more  numerous  a  century  ago.  Mr.  Paul  remarks 
that  "  it  is  interesting  to  compare  the  Hyacinths  of  1629  with  those 
*'  of  1864,  and  to  mark  the  improvement.  Two  hundred  and  thirty- 
"  five  years  have  elapsed  since  then,  and  this  simple  flower  serves 
"  well  to  illustrate  the  great  fact  that  the  original  forms  of  nature 
"  do  not  remain  fixed  and  stationary,  at  least  when  brought  under 
"  cultivation.  While  looking  at  the  extremes,  we  must  not,  how- 
*'  ever,  forget  that  there  are  intermediate  stages  which  are  for  the 
"  most  part  lost  to  us.  Nature  will  sometimes  indulge  herself 
"  with  a  leap,  but  as  a  rule  her  march  is  slow  and  gradual."  He 
adds  that  the  cultivator  should  have  "in  his  mind  an  ideal  of 
"  beauty,  for  the  realisation  of  which  he  works  with  head  and 
"  hand."  We  thus  see  how  clearly  Mr.  Paul,  an  eminently  success- 
ful cultivator  of  this  flower,  appreciates  the  action  of  methodical 
selection. 

In  a  curious  and  apparently  trustworthy  treatise,  published  at 
Amsterdam  ^^'^  in  1768,  it  is  stated  that  nearly  2,000  sorts  were  then 
known ;  but  in  1864  Mr.  Paul  found  only  700  in  the  largest  garden 
at  Haarlem.  In  this  treatise  it  is  said  that  not  an  instance  is 
known  of  any  one  variety  reproducing  itself  truly  by  seed :  the 
white  kinds,  however,  now  ^^^  almost  always  yield  white  hyacinths, 
and  the  yellow  kinds  come  nearly  true.  The  hyacinth  is  remark- 
able from  having  given  rise  to  varieties  with  bright  blue,  pink,  and 
distinctly  yellow  flowers.  These  three  primary  colours  do  not 
occur  in  the  varieties  of  any  other  species ;  nor  do  they  often  all 
occur  even  in  the  distinct  species  of  the  same  genus.  Although  the 
several  kinds  of  hyacinths  differ  but  slightly  from  each  other  except 
in  colour,  yet  each  kind  has  its  own  individual  character,  which 
can  be  recognised  by  a  highly  educated  eye ;  thus  the  writer  of  the 
Amsterdam  treatise  asserts  (p.  43)  that  some  experienced  florists, 
such  as  the  famous  G.  Voorhelm,  seldom  failed  in  a  collection  of 
above  twelve  hundred  sorts  to  recognise  each  variety  by  the  bulb 
alone!  This  same  writer  mentions  some  few  singular  variations: 
for  instance,  the  hyacinth  commonly  produces  six  leaves,  but  there 
is  one  kind  (p.  35)  which  scarcely  ever  has  more  than  three  leaves  ; 
another  never  more  than  five;  whilst  others  regularly  produce 
either  seven  or  eight  leaves.  A  variety,  called  la  Coryphee,  in- 
variably produces  (p.  116)  two  flower-stems,  united  together  and 
covered  by  one  skin.  The  flower-stem  in  another  kind  (p.  128) 
comes  out  of  the  ground  in  a  coloured  sheath,  before  the  appearance 
of  the  leaves,  and  is  consequently  liable  to  suffer  from  frost. 
Another  variety  always  pushes  a  second  flower-stem  after  the  first 
has  begun  to  develop  itself.  Lastly,  white  hyacinths  with  red, 
purple,  or  violet  centres  (p.  129)  are  the  most  liable  to  rot.    Thus, 


"s  '  Des   Jacinthes,    de  leur   Ana-  "^  Alph.  de  Candolle,  *  Gdograph. 

tomie,    Reproducti(jr,     et     Culture.'       Bot.,'  p.  1082 
Am  ;terdam,  17B8. 


396  FLOWEKS.  Chap.  X. 

the  hyacintli,  like  so  many  previous  plants,  when  long  cultivated 
and  closely  watched,  is  found  to  offer  many  singular  variations. 

In  the  two  last  chapters  I  have  given  in  some  detail  tho 
range  of  variation,  and  the  history,  as  far  as  known,  of  a 
considerable  number  of  plants,  which  have  been  cultivated 
for  various  purposes.  But  some  of  the  most  variable  plants, 
such  as  Kidney-beans,  Capsicnm,  Millets,  Sorghum,  &c.,  have 
been  passed  over ;  for  botanists  are  not  at  all  agreed  which 
kinds  ought  to  rank  as  species  and  which  as  varieties ; 
and  the  w41d  parent-species  are  unknown. ^^^  Many  plants 
long  cultivated  in  tropical  countries,  such  as  the  Banana, 
have  produced  numerous  varieties ;  but  as  these  have  never 
been  described  with  even  moderate  care,  they  are  here  also 
passed  over.  Nevertheless,  a  sufficient,  and  perhaps  more 
than  sufficient,  number  of  cases  have  hf^en  given,  so  that  the 
reader  may  be  enabled  to  judge  for  himself  on  the  nature  and 
great  amount  of  variation  which  cultivated  plants  have 
undergone. 

168  Alph.  de  Candolle, '  Geograph.  Bot.,'  p.  983. 


Chap.  XI.  BUD-VARIATION.  39Y 


CHAPTER  XI. 

ON   BUD-VARIATIOIS',    AND   ON    CERTAIN    ANOMALOUS   MODES   OF 
REPRODUCTION    AND    VARIATION. 

3UD-VARIATI0N  IN  THE  PEACH,  PLUM,  CHERRY,  VINE,  GOOSEBERRY,  CTTRRANTj 
AND  BANANA,  AS  SHOWN  BY  THE  MODIFIED  FRUIT — IN  FLOWERS: 
CAMELLIAS,  AZALEAS,  CHRYSANTHEMUMS,  ROSES,  ETC. — ON  THE  RUNNING 
OF  THE  COLOIR  IN  CARNATIONS — BUD-VARIATIONS  IN  LEAVES — VARIA- 
TIONS BY  SUCKERS,  TUBERS,  AND  BULBS — ON  THE  BREAKING  OF  TULIPS 
— BUD-VARIATIONS  GRADUATE  INTO  CHANGES  CONSEQUENT  ON  CHANGED 
CONDITIONS  OP  LIFE — GRAFT-HYBRIDS  —ON  THE  SEGREGATION  OF  THE 
PARENTAL  CHARACTERS  IN  SEMINAL  HYBRIDS  BY  BUD-VARIATION — ON 
THE  DIRECT  OR  IMMEDIATE  ACTION  OF  FOREIGN  POLLEN  ON  THE  MOTHER- 
PLANT — ON  THE  EFFECTS  IN  FEMALE  ANIMALS  OP  A  PREVIOUS  IMPREG- 
NATION  ON   THE   SUBSEQUENT   OFFSPRING — CONCLUSION   AND    SUMMARY. 

This  chapter  v\dll  be  cliiefly  devoted  to  a  subject  in  many 
respects  important,  namely,  bud- variation.  By  this  term  I 
include  all  those  sudden  changes  in  structure  or  appearance 
which  occasionally  occur  in  full-grown  plants  in  their  flower- 
buds  or  leaf- buds.  Gardeners  call  such  changes  "  Sports  ;" 
but  this,  as  previously  remarked,  is  an  ill-defined  expression, 
as  it  has  often  been  applied  to  strongly  marked  variations  in 
seedling  plants.  The  difference  between  seminal  and  bud 
reproduction  is  not  so  great  as  it  at  first  appears;  for  each 
bud  is  in  one  sense  a  new  and  distinct  individual ;  but  such 
individuals  are  produced  through  the  formation  of  various 
kinds  of  buds  without  the  aid  of  any  special  apparatus, 
whilst  fertile  seeds  are  produced  by  the  concourse  of  the  two 
sexual  elements.  The  modifications  which  arise  througch 
bud- variation  can  generally  be  propagated  to  any  extent  b}' 
grafting,  budding,  cuttings,  bulbs,  &c.,  and  occasionally  even 
by  seed.  Some  few  of  our  most  beautiful  and  useful  pro- 
ductions have  arisen  by  bud-variation. 

Bud-variations  have  as  yet  been  observed  only  in  the 
vegetable  kingdom ;  but  it  is  probable  that  if  compound 
animals,  such  as  corals,  &c.,  had  been  subjected   to  a  long 


398  BUD- VARIATION.  Chap.  XL 

course  of  domestication,  they  would  have  varied  by  buds ; 
for  they  resoniLle  plants  in  many  respects.  For  instance,  any 
new  or  peculiar  character  presented  by  a  compound  animal  is 
propagated  by  budding,  as  occurs  with  differently  coloured 
Hvdras,  and  as  Mr.  Gosse  has  shown  to  De  the  case  with  a 
singular  variety  of  a  true  coral.  Varieties  of  the  Hyd.j-a 
have  also  been  grafted  on  other  varieties,  and  have  retained 
their  character. 

I  will  in  the  first  place  give  all  the  cases  of  bud  variations 
which  I  have  been  able  to  collect,  and  afterwards  show  their 
importance.^  These  cases  prove  that  those  authors  who, 
like  Pallas,  attribute  all  variability  to  the  crossing  either  of 
distinct  races,  or  of  distinct  individuals  belonging  to  the 
same  race  but  somewhat  different  from  each  other,  are  in 
error ;  as  are  those  authors  who  attribute  all  variability  to 
the  mere  act  of  sexual  union.  Nor  can  we  account  in  all  cases 
for  the  appearance  through  bud-variation  of  new  characters 
by  the  princible  of  reversion  to  long-lost  characters.  He 
who  wishes  to  judge  how  far  the  conditions  of  life  directly 
cause  each  particular  variation  ought  to  reflect  well  on  the 
cases  immediately  to  be  given.  I  will  commence  with  bud- 
variations,  as  exhibited  in  the  fruit,  and  then  pass  on  to 
flowers,  and  finally  to  leaves. 

Peach  (Amygdalufi  persica). — Tn  the  last  chapter  1  gave  two  cases 
of  a  peach-almond  and  a  double-flowered  almond  which  suddenly 
produced  fruit  closely  resembling  true  jDeaches.  I  have  also  given 
many  cases  of  peach-trees  producing  buds,  which,  when  developed 
into  branches,  have  yielded  nectarines.  We  have  seen  that  no  less 
than  six  named  and  several  unnamed  varieties  of  the  peach  have 
thus  produced  several  varieties  of  nectarine.  I  have  shown  that 
it  is  highly  improbable  that  all  these  pjach-trees,  some  of  which 
are  old  varieties,  and  have  been  propagated  by  the  million,  are 
hybrids  from  the  peach  and  nectarine,  and  that  it  is  opposed 
to  all  analogy  to  attribute  the  occasional  production  of  nectarines 


*  Since  the  publication   of  the  first  than  mine  ;  but  as  these  relate  chiefly 

edition  of  this  work,  I  have  found  that  to  cases   occurring  in   France   I  have 

M.    Carriere,   Chef  des  Pepinieres  a'<  left   my    list     as     it    stood,     adding 

Mus.   d' Hist.   Nat.,  in    his   excellent  a   few  facts    from  M.    Carriere    and 

Essay,    '  Production  et    Fixation    des  others.      Any    one   who     wishes     to 

Varirtds,  1866,'  has   given  a    list    of  study  the  subject  fully  snould  refc: 

bud-variations    far     more    extensive  to  M.  Carriere's  Essav. 


Chap.  XI.  FRUIT.  399 

on  peach-trees  to  the  direct  action  of  pollen  from  some  neighbouring 
nectarine-tree.  Several  of  the  cases  are  highly  remarkable,  because, 
firstly,  the  fruit  thus  produced  has  sometimes  been  in  part  a 
nectarine  and  in  part  a  peach ;  secondly,  because  nectarines  thus 
suddenly  produced  have  reproduced  themselves  by  seed ;  and  thirdly, 
because  nectarines  are  produced  from  peach-trees  from  seed  as 
well  as  from  buds.  The  seed  of  the  nectarine,  on  the  other  hand, 
occasionally  produces  peaches ;  and  we  have  seen  in  one  instance 
that  a  nectarine-tree  yielded  peaches  by  bud-variation.  As  the 
peach  is  certainly  the  oldest  or  primary  variety,  the  production 
of  peaches  from  nectarines,  either  by  seeds  or  buds,  may  perhaps 
be  considered  as  a  case  of  reversion.  Certain  trees  have  also 
been  described  as  indifferently  bearing  peaches  or  nectarines,  and 
this  may  be  considered  as  bud-variation  carried  to  an  extreme 
degree. 

The  grosse  mignonne  peach  at  Montreuil  produced  "from  a 
sporting  branch "  the  grosse  mignonne  tardive,  "  a  most  excellent 
variety,"  which  ripens  its  fruit  a  fortnight  later  than  the  parent 
tree,  and  in  equally  good.^  This  same  peach  has  likewise  produced 
by  bud-variation  the  early  grosf-e  mignonne.  Hunt's  large  tawny 
nectarine  "  originated  from  Hunt's  small  tawny  nectarine,  but  not 
through  seminal  reproduction."'^ 

Plums. — Mr.  Knight  states  that  a  tree  of  the  yellow  magnum 
bonum  plum,  forty  years  old,  which  had  always  borne  ordinary 
Iruit,  produced  a  branch  which  yielded  red  magnum  bonums."* 
Mr.  Eivers,  of  Sawbridgeworth,  informs  me  (Jan.  1863)  that  a 
single  tree  out  of  400  or  500  trees  of  the  Early  Prolific  plum,  which 
is  a  purple  kind,  descended  from  an  old  French  variety  bearing 
purple  fruit,  produced  when  about  ten  years  old  bright  yellow 
plums ;  these  differed  in  no  respect  except  colour  from  those  on 
the  other  trees,  but  were  unlike  any  other  known  kind  of  yellow 
plum.^ 

Cherry  {Prunus  cerastis). — Mr.  Knight  has  recorded  (ibid.)  the 
case  of  a  branch  of  a  May-Duke  cherry,  which,  though  certainly 
never  grafted,  always  produced  fruit,  ripening  later,  and  more 
oblong  than  the  fruit  on  the  other  branches.  Another  account 
has  been  given  of  two  May-Duke  cherry-trees  in  Scotland,  with 
branches  bearing  oblong  and  very  fine  fruit,  which  invariably 
ripened,  as  in  Knight's  case,  a  fortnight  later  than  the  other  cherries." 
M.  Carriere  gives  (p.  37)  numerous  analogous  cases,  and  one  of  the 
same  tree  bearing  three  kinds  of  fruit. 

Grapes  ( Vitis  vinifera). — The   black  or  purple   Frontignan   in 


'  'Gardener's  Chron.,'  1854.  p.  821.  *  'Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,'  vol.  ii.  p. 

'  Lindley's    'Gi:ide    to  Orchard,'  as  160. 
quoted  in  '  Gardener's  Chron.*  1852.  p.  ^  See    also     'Gardener's     Chron., 

821.     For  the  Early  mignonne  peach,  1863,  p.  27. 

8<?e  '  Gardener's    Chron.,'      i8j4,     p.  «  '  Gard.  Chror.,' 1852,  p.  821. 

1251. 


400  BUD-YARIATION.  Chap.  XL 

one  case  produced  during  two  successive  years  i^and  no  doubt 
permanently)  spurs  which  bore  white  Frontignan  grapes.  In 
another  case,  on  the  same  footstalk,  the  lower  berries  "  Avere  well- 
coloured  black  Frontignans;  those  next  the  stalk  were  white, 
with  the  exception  of  one  black  and  one  streaked  berry;"  and 
altogether  there  were  fifteen  black  and  twelve  white  berries  on  the 
same  stalk.  In  another  kind  of  grape,  black  and  amber-coloured 
berries  were  produced  in  the  same  cluster.'^  Count  Odart  describes 
a  variety  which  often  bears  on  the  same  stalk  small  round  and 
large  oblong  berries ;  though  the  shape  of  the  berry  is  generally 
a  fixed  character.*  Here  is  another  striking  case  given  on  the 
excellent  authority  of  M.  Carriere:^  "a,  black  Hamburg  grape 
(Frankenthal)  was  cut  down,  and  produced  three  suckers;  one 
of  these  was  layered,  and  after  a  time  produced  much  smaller 
berries,  which  always  ripened  at  least  a  fortnight  earlier  than 
the  others.  Of  the  remaining  two  suckers,  one  produced  every 
year  fine  grapes,  whilst  the  other,  although  it  set  an  abundance 
of  fruit,  matured  only  a  few,  and  these  of  inferior  quality." 

Gooseberry  {tiibes  grossularia). — A  remarkable  case  has  been 
described  by  Dr.  Lindley  ^°  of  a  bush  which  bore  at  the  same  time 
no  less  than  four  kinds  of  berries,  namely,  hairy  and  red, — smooth, 
small  and  red,— green, — and  yellow  tinged  with  buff;  the  two 
latter  kinds  had  a  different  flavour  from  the  red  berries,  and  their 
seeds  were  coloured  red.  Three  twigs  on  this  bush  grew  close 
together ;  the  first  bore  three  yellow  berries  and  one  red ;  the 
second  twig  bore  four  yellow  and  one  red ;  and  the  third  four  red 
and  one  yellow.  Mr.  Laxton  also  informs  me  that  he  has  seen 
a  Eed  Warrington  gooseberry  bearing  both  red  and  yellow  fruit 
on  the  same  branch. 

Currant  (lUbes  rubrum). — A  bush  purchased  as  the  Champagne, 
which  is  a  variety  that  bears  blush-coloured  fruit  intermediate 
between  red  and  white,  produced  during  fourteen  years  on  separate 
branches  and  mingled  on  the  same  branch,  berries  of  the  red,  white, 
and  champagne  kinds.^^  The  suspicion  naturally  arises  that  this 
variety  may  have  originated  from  a  cross  between  a  red  and  white 
variety,  and  that  the  above  transformation  may  be  accounted  for 
by  reversion  to  both  parent-forms ;  but  from  the  foregoing  complex 
case  of  the  gooseberry  this  view  is  doubtful.  In  France,  a  branch 
of  a  red-currant  bush,  about  ten  years  old,  produced  near  the 
summit  five  white  berries,  and  lower  down,  amongst  the  red  berries. 


»  Gardener's  Chron.,'  1852,  p.  629  ;  '»  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1855,  pp. 

1856,  p.  618;   1864,  p.  986.     Other  597,612. 

2ases  are  given  by  Braun   '  Rejuvene-  ^^   '  Gardener's    Chron.,*    1842,    p. 

icence,'    in   'Kay     Soc.    Bot.    Mem.,'  873  ;  1855,  p.  646.     In  the  '  Chroni- 

1853,  p.  314.  cle,'  p.  876,  Mr.  P.  Mackenzie   states 

"  '  Ampelographie.'&c,  1849,p.  71.  that  the  bush  still  continues  to  boar 

^  'Gardener's  Chrnniclc,'   1866,  p.  the    thren  kinds  of  fruit.  •' although 

970.  they  hare  not  been  every  year  alike. 


CiiAP.  XL  FLOWERS.  401 

one  berry  half  red  and  half  white.'^^  Alexander  Braiin^^  also  has 
often  seen  branches  on  white  currant-trees  bearing  red  berries. 

Pear  (Pyrics  communis). — Dureau  de  la  Malle  states  that  tho 
flowers  on  some  trees  of  an  ancient  variety,  the  doyenne  gaUux,  were 
destroyed  by  frost :  other  flowers  appeared  in  Jnly,  which  produced 
six  pears;  these  exactly  resembled  in  their  skin  and  taste  the 
fruit  of  a  distinct  variety,  the  groi^  doyenne  h/anc,  but  in  shape 
were  like  the  hon-chretien:  it  was  not  ascertained  whether  this 
new  variety  could  be  propagated  by  budding  or  grafting.  The 
same  author  grafted  a  ton-chretitn  on  a  quince,  and  it  produced, 
besides  its  proper  fruit,  an  apparently  new  variety,  of  a  peculiar 
form  with  thick  and  rough  skin.^^ 

Apple  {Fyrus  malus). — In  Canada,  a  tree  of  the  variety  called 
Pound  Sweet,  produced,^^  between  two  of  its  proper  fruit,  an  apple 
which  was  well  russeted,  small  in  size,  different  in  shape,  and 
with  a  short  peduncle.  As  no  russet  a])ple  grew  anywhere  near, 
this  case  apparently  cannot  be  accounted  for  by  the  direct  action 
of  foreign  pollen.  M.  Carriere  (p.  88)  mentions  an  analogous 
instance.  I  shall  hereafter  give  cases  of  apple-trees  which  regu- 
larly produce  fruit  of  two  kinds,  or  half-and-half  fruit;  these  trees 
are  generally  supposed,  and  probably  with  truth,  to  be  of  crossed 
parentage,  and  that  the  fruit  reverts  to  both  parent-forms. 

Banana  (Musa  sapientium). — Sir  E,  Schomburgk  states  that  he 
saw  in  St.  Domingo  a  raceme  on  the  Fig  Banana  which  bore 
towards  the  base  125  fruits  of  the  proper  kind;  and  these  were 
succeeded,  as  is  usual,  higher  up  the  raceme,  by  barren  flowers, 
and  these  by  420  fruits,  having  a  widely  different  appearance,  and 
ripening  earlier  than  the  proper  fruit.  The  abnormal  fruit  closely 
resembled,  except  in  being  smaller,  that  of  the  Musa  chivensin  or 
cavendishii,  which  has  generally  been  ranked  as  a  distinct  species. ^"^ 

Flowees.— Many  cases  have  been  recorded  of  a  whole  plant,  or 
single  branch,  or  bud,  suddenly  producing  flowers  different  from 
the  proper  type  in  colour,  form,  size,  doubleness,  or  other  character. 
Half  the  flower,  or  a  smaller  segment,  sometimes  changes  colour. 

Camellia. — The  myrtle-leaved  species  (C  myrtifolia),  and  two  or 
three  varieties  of  the  common  species,  have  been  known  to  produce 
hexagonal  and  imperfectly  quadrangular  flowers ;  and  the  branches 
producing  such  flowers  have  been  propagated  by  grafting.^^  The 
Pompon  variety  often  bears  "  four  distinguishable  kinds  of  flowers, 
■'  — the  pure  white  and  the  red-eyed,  which  appear  promiscuously ; 
'*  the  brindled   pink  and   the  rose-coloured,   which  may  be  kept 


*2     Revue    Horticole,'    quoted    in  ibid.,  torn,  xxxiv.,  1852,  p.  748. 

'Gard.  Chronicle,'  1844,  p.  87.  '^  This  case  is  given  in  the  '  Gard. 

^^  '  Rejuvenescence  in  Nature,*  Bot.  Chronicle,'  1867,  p.  403. 

Menioirs  Ray  Soc.,'  1853,  p.  314,  i**  '  Journal  of    Proc.    Linn.  So(\, 

^■^  'Comptes      Rendus,'     torn.    xli.  yol.  ii.  Botany,  p.  131. 

1855,    ]>.    80 1-.     The    second    case  is  ^^  '  Gard.  Chronicle,' 1847,  p.  207. 
given  on  the  authority  of  Gaudichaud, 

27 


402  BUD-VAEIATION.  Cilu^  Xi. 

"  separate  with  tolerable  certainty  by  grafting  from  the  branches 
"  that  bear  them."  A  branch,  also,  on  an  old  tree  of  the  rose-coloured 
variety  has  been  seen  to  "  revert  to  the  pure  white  colour,  an 
*'  occurrence  less  common  than  the  departure  from  it."  ^^ 

Crataegus  oxyurantha. — A  dark  pink  hawthorn  has  been  known  to 
throw  out  a  single  tuft  of  pure  white  blossoms;  ^^  and  Mr.  A. 
Clapham,  nurseryman,  of  Bedford,  informs  me  that  his  father  had  a 
deep  crimson  thorn  grafted  on  a  white  thorn,  which  during  several 
years,  always  bore,  high  above  the  graft,  bunches  of  white,  pink  and 
deep  crimson  flowers. 

Azalea  indica  is  well  known  often  to  produce  new  varieties  by 
buds.  I  have  myself  seen  several  cases.  A  plant  of  Azalea  indica 
varieyaia  has  been  exhibited  bearing  a  truss  of  flowers  of  A.  ind. 
gledstanesii ''  as  true  as  could  possibly  be  produced,  thus  evidencing 
the  origin  of  that  fine  variety."  On  another  plant  of  A.  ind.  varie- 
gata  a  perfect  flower  of  A.  ind.  Jateritia  was  produced ;  so  that  both 
ghdstanesii  and  lateritia  no  doubt  originally  appeared  as  sporting 
branches  of  A.  ind.  varieyafa.^^ 

Hibiscus  {Paritium  tricuspis). — A  seedling  of  this  plant,  when  some 
years  old,  produced,  at  Saharunpore,^^  some  branches  "  which  bore 
leaves  and  flowers  widely  different  from  the  normal  form."  ''The 
abnormal  leaf  is  much  less  divided,  and  not  acuminated.  The 
petals  are  considerably  larger,  and  quite  entire.  There  is  also  in 
the  fresh  state  a  conspicuous,  large,  oblong  gland,  full  of  a  viscid 
secretion,  on  the  back  of  each  of  the  calycine  segments."  Dr.  King, 
who  subsequently  had  charge  of  these  Gardens,  informs  me  that  a 
tree  of  Paritium  tricuspis  (probably  the  very  same  plant)  growing 
there,  had  a  branch  buried  in  the  ground,  apparently  by  accident ; 
and  this  branch  changed  its  character  wonderfully,  growing  like  a 
bush,  and  producing  flowers  and  leaves,  resembling  in  shape  those 
of  another  species,  viz.,  P.  tiliaceum.  A  small  branch  springing 
from  this  bush  near  the  ground,  reverted  to  the  parent-form. 
Both  forms  were  extensively  propagated  during  several  years  by 
cuttings  and  kept  perfectly  true. 

Althcea  rosea. — A  double  yellow  Hollyhock  suddenly  turned  one 
year  into  a  pure  white  single  kind ;  subsequently  a  branch  bearing 
the  original  double  yellow  flowers  reappeared  in  the  midst  of  the 
branches  of  the  single  white  kind.^^ 

Pelargonium. — These  highly  cultivated  plants  seem  eminently 
liable  to  bud- variation.  I  will  give  only  a  few  well-marked  cases. 
Gartner  has  seen^^  a  plant  of  P.  zonule  with  a  branch  having  white 


18  Herbert,  '  Amaryllidacege,'  1S38,  21  Mr.  W.  Bell,  Bot.  Soc.  of  Edin- 

p.  369.  burgh,  May,  1863. 

19 '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1843,  p.  22 '  Kevue    Horticole,'    quoted    in 

391.  '  Gardener's  Chron.,'  18-45,  p.  475. 

20  Exhibited  at  Hort.  Soc.,  London.  23  ^  Bastarderzeugung,'      1849,     s. 

Eeport  in  '  Gardener's  Chron.,'  1844,  76. 
p.  337. 


Chap.  XL  PLOWEKS.  40^ 

edges,  which  remained  constant  for  years,  and  bore  flowers  of  a 
deeper  red  than  nsiial.  Generally  speaking,  such  branches  present 
little  or  no  difference  in  their  flowers :  thus  a  writer  ^^  pinched  off 
the  leading  shoot  of  a  seedling  P.  zonale,  and  it  threw  out  three 
branches,  which  differed  in  the  size  and  colour  of  their  leaves  and 
stems;  but  on  all  three  branches  "the  flowers  were  identical," 
except  in  being  largest  in  the  green-stemmed  variety,  and  smallest 
in  that  with  variegated  foliage :  these  three  varieties  were  sub- 
sequently propagated  and  distributed.  Many  branches,  and  some 
whole  plants,  of  a  variety  called  compactum,  which  bears  orange- 
scarlet  flowers,  have  been  seen  to  produce  pink  flowers.^^  Hill's 
Hector,  which  is  a  pale  red  variety,  produced  a  branch  with  lilac 
flowers,  and  some  trusses  with  both  red  and  lilac  flowers.  This 
apparently  is  a  case  of  reversion,  for  Hill's  Hector  was  a  seedling 
from  a  lilac  variety. ^^  Here  is  a  better  case  of  reversion :  a  variety 
produced  from  a  complicated  cross,  after  having  been  propagated" 
for  five  generations  by  seed,  yielded  by  bud-variation  three  very 
distinct  varieties  which  were  undistinguishable  from  plants, 
''known  to  have  been  at  some  time  ancestors  of  the  plant  in 
question." ^'^  Of  all  Pelargoniums,  Eollisson's  Unique  seems  to  be 
the  most  sportive ;  its  origin  is  not  positively  known,  but  is  believed 
to  be  from  a  cross.  Mr.  Salter,  of  Hammersmith,  states  ^'*  that  he 
has  himself  known  this  purple  variety  to  produce  the  lilac,  the 
rose-crimson  or  conspicuum,  and  the  red  or  coccineum  varieties;  the 
latter  has  also  produced  the  rose  d'amour ;  so  that  altogether  four 
varieties  have  originated  by  bud  variation  from  Eollisson's  Unique. 
Mr.  Salter  remarks  that  these  four  varieties  "  may  now  be  con- 
"  sidered  as  fixed,  although  they  occasionally  produce  flowers  of 
"  the  original  colour.  This  year  coccineum  has  pushed  flowers  of 
"  three  different  colours,  red,  rose,  and  lilac,  upon  the  same  truss, 
"  and  upon  other  trusses  are  flowers  half  red  and  half  lilac." 
Besides  these  four  varieties,  two  other  scarlet  Uniques  are  kno'^7n  to 
exist,  both  of  which  occasionally  produce  lilac  flowers  identical 
with  Eollisson's  Unique ;  "^^  but  one  at  least  of  these  did  not  arise 
through  bud-variation,  but  is  believed  to  be  a  seedling  from  Eollis- 
son's Unique."  ^^  There  are,  also,  in  the  trade  ^^  two  other  slightly 
different  varieties,  of  unknown  origin,  of  Eollisson's  Unique :  so 
that  altogether  we  have  a  curiously  complex  case  of  variation  both 
by  buds  and  seeds.^^    Here  is  a  still  more  complex  case  :  M.  Eafarin 


'^  '  Journal  of  Horticulture,'  1861,  so  w.  p^ul,  iu  '  Gardener's  Chron.,' 

p   336.  1861,  p.  968. 

'^  W.    P.    Ay  res,     in    '  Gardener's  ^^  Ibid.,  p.  945. 

Chron.,'  184-2,  p.  791.  '^  For  other  cases  of  bud-rariation 

^®  W.  P.  Ayres,  ibid.  in  this  same  variety,  see  '  Gardener's. 

■27  Dr.     Maxwell     Masters,    'Pop.  Chron.,' 1861,  pp.  578,  600, 925.     For 

Science  Review,' July,  1872,  p.  250.  other  distinct'  cases  of  bud-variation 

2*  'Gardener's    Chron.,*    1861,    p  in  the  genus  Pelarsjonium,  see  '  Cot- 

968.  tage  Gardener,'  1860.  p.  194. 

28  Ibid.,  1861,  p.  945. 


404  BUD-VAEIATION.  Chap.  XI. 

states  that  a  pale  rose-colonred  variety  produced  a  branch  bearing 
deep  red  flowers.  "  Cuttings  were  taken  from  this  '  sport/  from 
"  which  20  plants  were  raised,  which  flowered  in  1867,  when  it  was 
"  found  that  scarcely  two  were  alike."  Some  resembled  the  parent- 
form,  some  resembled  the  sport,  some  bore  both  kinds  of  flowers ; 
and  even  some  of  the  petals  on  the  same  flower  were  rose-coloured 
and  others  red.^^  An  English  wild  plant,  the  Geranium  praiense, 
when  cultivated  in  a  garden,  has  been  seen  to  produce  on  the  same 
plant  both  blue  and  white,  and  striped  blue  and  white  flowers.^* 

Chrysanthemum. — This  plant  frequently  sports,  both  by  its  lateral 
branches  and  occasionally  by  suckers.  A  seedling  raised  by 
Mr.  Salter  has  produced  by  bud-variation  six  distinct  sorts,  five 
different  in  colour  and  one  in  foliage,  all  of  which  are  now  fixed.^^ 
A  variety  called  cedo  ■uulli  bears  small  yellow  flowers,  but  habitu- 
ally produces  branches  with  white  flowers ;  and  a  specimen  was 
exhibited,  which  Prof.  T.  Dyer  saw,  before  the  Horticultural  Society. 
The  varieties  which  were  first  introduced  from  China  were  so 
excessively  variable,  "  that  it  was  extremely  difficult  to  tell  which 
was  the  original  colour  of  the  variety,  and  which  was  the  sport." 
The  same  plant  would  produce  one  year  only  buff-coloured,  and 
next  year  only  rose-coloured  flowers;  and  then  would  change  again, 
or  produce  at  the  same  time  flowers  of  both  colours.  These  fluc- 
tuating varieties  are  now  all  lost,  and,  when  a  branch  sports  into  a 
new  variety,  it  can  generally  be  propagated  and  kept  true ;  but,  as 
Mr.  Salter  remarks,  "  every  sport  should  be  thoroughly  tested  in 
"  different  soils  before  it  can  be  really  considered  as  fixed,  as  many 
"  have  been  known  to  run  back  when  planted  in  rich  compost ;  but 
"  when  sufficient  care  and  time  are  expended  in  proving,  there  will 
"  exist  little  danger  of  subsequent  disappointment."  Mr.  Salter 
informs  me  that  with  all  the  varieties  the  commonest  kind  of  bud- 
variation  is  the  production  of  yellow  flowers,  and,  as  this  is  the 
jDrimordial  colour,  these  cases  may  be  attributed  to  reversion. 
Mr.  Salter  has  given  me  a  list  of  seven  differently  coloured  chrysan- 
themums, which  have  all  produced  branches  with  yellow  flowers ; 
but  three  of  them  have  also  sported  into  other  colours.  With  any 
change  of  colour  in  the  flower,  the  foliage  generally  changes  in  a 
corresponding  manner  in  lightness  or  darkness. 

Another  Compositous  plant,  namely,  Centauria  cyanus,  when  culti- 
vated in  a  garden,  not  unfrequently  produces  on  the  same  root  flowers 
of  four  different  colours,  viz.,  blue,  white,  dark-purple,  and  parti- 
coloured.^^    The  flowers  of  Anthemis  also  vary  on  the  same  i)lant.^' 

Roses. — Many  varieties  of  the  Eose  are  known  or  are  believed  to 


33  Dr.     Maxwell    Masters,      '  Pop.  p.  41,  &c. 

Science  Review,'  July,  1872,  p.  254.  ^e  gj-ee,  in  Loudon's  '  Garl.  Mag.,, 

3*  Rev.    W.    T.   Bree,  in    Loudon's  voL  viii.,  1832,   p.  93. 

'  Gard.  Mag.,'  vol.  viii.,  1832,  p.  93.  37  Bronn,  '  Geschi  ;hte  del    Natur, 

^^  'The  Chrysanthemum:  its  His-  B.  ii.  s.  123. 
bory  ;ind  Cti'.ture,' by  J.  Salter,  ]865, 


Chap.  XI.  FLOWERS.  405 

have  originated  by  bnd-Tariation.^^  The  common  double  moss-rose 
was  imported  into  England  from  Italy  about  the  year  173  3.^^  Its 
origin  is  unknown,  but  from  analogy  it  probably  arose  from  the 
ProYence  rose  {ti.  centifolia)  by  bud-variation;  for  the  branches  of 
the  common  moss-rose  have  several  times  been  known  to  produce 
Provence  roses,  wholly  or  partiaUy  destitute  of  moss :  I  have  seen 
one  such  instance,  and  several  others  have  been  recorded.''^ 
Mr.  Eivers  also  informs  me  tbat  he  raised  two  or  three  roses  of 
the  Provence  class  from  seed  of  the  old  single  moss-rose ;  *^  and  this 
latter  kind  was  produced  in  1807  by  bud-variation  from  the  com- 
mon moss-rose.  The  white  moss-rose  was  also  produced  in  1788 
by  an  oliset  from  the  common  red  moss-rose :  it  was  at  first  pale 
blush-coloured,  but  became  white  by  continued  budding.  On 
cutting  down  the  shoots  which  had  produced  this  white  moss-rose, 
two  weak  shoots  were  thrown  up,  and  buds  from  these  yielded  the 
beautiful  striped  moss-rose.  The  common  moss-rose  has  yielded 
\)y  bud-variation,  besides  the  old  single  red  moss-rose,  the  old 
ficarlet  semi- double  moss-rose,  and  the  sage-leaf  moss-rose,  which 
"  has  a  delicate  shell-like  form,  and  is  of  a  beautiful  blush  colour ; 
it  is  now  (1852)  nearly  extinct."  "^^  A  white  moss-rose  has  been 
seen  to  bear  a  flower  half  white  and  half  pink.*^  Although  several 
moss-roses  have  thus  certainly  arisen  by  bud-variation,  the  greater 
number  probably  owe  their  origin  to  seed  of  moss-roses  For 
Mr,  Eivers  informs  me  that  his  seedlings  from  the  old  single^moss- 
rose  almost  always  produced  moss-roses ;  and  the  old  single  moss-rose 
was,  as  we  have  seen,  the  product  by  bud- variation  of  the  double 
moss-rose  originally  imported  from  Italy.  That  the  original  muss- 
rose  was  the  product  of  bud-variation  is  probable,  from  the  facts 
above  given  and  from  the  de  Meaux  moss-rose  (also  a  variety  of 
B.  centifolia)  "^^  having  appeared  as  a  sporting  branch  on  the 
common  rose  de  Meaux.  Prof.  Caspary  has  carefully  described*^ 
the  case  of  a  six-year-old  white  moss-rose,  which  sent  uj)  several 
suckers,  one  of  which  was  thorny,  and  produced  red  flowers, 
destitute  of  moss,  exactly  like  those  of  the  Provence  rose  {B.  cenii- 
foJia) :  another  shoot  bore  both  kinds  of  flowers,  and  in  addition 
longitudinally  striped  flowers.  As  this  white  moss-rose  had  been 
grafted  on  the  Provence  rose.  Prof.  Caspary  attributes  the  above 


38  T.  ■  Eivers,    '  Eose     Amateur's  of  Mr.  Shailer,  who,  together  with 

Guide,'  1837,  p.  4.  his   father,  was  concerned  in  their 

3»  Mr.    Shailer,  quoted    in    '  Gar-  original    propagation.      See    '  Gard. 

dener's  Chron.,'  1848,  p.  759.  Chron.,'  1852,  p.  759. 

40 'Transact.   Hort.   Soc.,'  vol.   iv.  43 '  Gard.  Chron.,' 1845,  p.  564. 

1822,   p.  137  ;  '  Gard.   Chron.,'  1842,  44 '  Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,'  vol.  ii.  p. 

p.  422.             '  242. 

41  See  also  Loudon's  '  Arboretum,'  45 '  Schriften  der  Phys.  Oekon. 
vol.  ii.  p.  780.  Gesell.  zu  Konigsberg,'  Feb.  3,  1865, 

42  AH  these  statements  on  the  s.  4.  See  also  Dr.  Caspary's  paper  in 
origin  of  the  several  varieties  of  the  'Transactions  of  the  Hort.  Congress 
moss-rose  are  given  on  the  authority  of  Amsterdam,'  1865. 


406  BUD-VAEIATION.  Chap.  XL 

changes  to  the  influence  of  the  stock;  but  from  the  facts  ah^eady 
given,  and  from  others  to  be  given,  bud- variation,  with  reversion, 
is  probably  a  sufficient  explanation. 

Many  other  instances  could  be  added  of  roses  varying  by  buds. 
The  white  Provence  rose  apparently  originated  in  this  way.^^  M. 
Carriere  states  (p.  36)  that  he  himself  knows  of  five  varieties  thus 
produced  by  the  Baronne  Prevost.  The  double  and  highly-coloured 
Belladonna  rose  has  produced  by  suckers  both  semi-double  and 
almost  single  white  roses ;  *^  whilst  suckers  from  one  of  these  semi- 
double  white  roses  reverted  to  perfectly  characterised  Belladonnas, 
In  St.  Domingo,  varieties  of  the  China  rose  propagated  by  cuttings 
often  revert  after  a  year  or  two  into  the  old  China  rose.'*^  Many 
cases  have  been  recorded  of  roses  suddenly  becoming  striped  or 
changing  their  character  by  segments  :  some  plants  of  the  Comtesse 
de  Chabrillant,  which  is  properly  rose-coloured,  were  exhibited  in 
1862,*^  with  crimson  flakes  on  a  rose  ground.  I  have  seen  the 
Beauty  of  Billiard  with  a  quarter  and  with  half  the  flower  almost 
white.  The  Austrian  bramble  {R.  lutea)  not  rarely  ^°  produces 
branches  with  pure  yellow  flowers;  and  Prof.  Henslow  has  seen 
exactly  half  the  flower  of  a  pure  yellow,  and  I  have  seen  narrow 
yellow  streaks  on  a  single  petal,  of  which  the  rest  was  of  the  usual 
copper  colour. 

The  following  cases  are  highly  remarkable.  Mr.  Elvers,  as  I  am 
informed  by  him,  possessed  a  new  French  rose  with  delicate  smooth 
shoots,  pale  glaucous-green  leaves,  and  semi-double  pale  flesh-coloured 
flowers  striped  with  dark  red ;  and  on  branches  thus  characterised 
there  suddenly  appeared  in  more  than  one  instance,  the  famous  old 
rose  called  the  Baronne  Prevost,  with  its  stout  thorny  shoots,  and 
immense,  uniformly  and  richly  coloured  double  flowers ;  eo  that  in 
this  case  the  shoots,  leaves,  and  flowers,  all  at  once  changed  their 
character  by  bud-variation.  According  to  M.  Verlot,^^  a  variety 
called  Rosa  K^annahi folia,  wliich  has  peculiarly  shaped  leaflets,  and 
differs  from  every  member  of  the  famiJy  in  the  leaves  being  opposite 
instead  of  alternate,  suddenly  appeared  on  a  plant  of  i?.  alba  in  the 
gardens  of  the  Luxembourg.  Lastly, "  a  running  shoot "  was  observed 
by  Mr.  H.  Curtis  ^^  on  the  old  Aimee  Vibert  Noisette,  and  he  budded  it 
on  Celine;  thus  a  climbing  xiimee  Vibert  was  first  produced  and 
afterwards  propagated. 

Dianthus. — It  is  quite  common  with  the  Sweet  William  (D, 
harhatus)  to  see  differently  coloured  flowers  on  the  same  root ;  and  1 
have  observed  on  the  same  truss  four  differently  coloured  and 
shaded  flowers.     Carnations  and  pinks  (D.  caryophyllus,  &c.)  occa- 


"«  '  Gard.  Chron.,*  1852,  p.  759.  ^o  Hopkirk's  '  Flora  Anomala,'  167. 

"  '  Ti'ansact.  Hort.  Soc.,'  vol.  ii.  p.  ^'  '  iSur  la  Production  et  la  Fixation 

242,  des  Varietes,'  1865,  p.  4. 

''^  Sir      R.    Schomburgk,     '  Proc.  ^^  tjo^mal  of  Horticulture,' March. 

Linn.  Soc.  Bot.,'  vol.  ii.  p.  132.  1895,  p.  233. 

«  'GarJ.  Cnron.,'  18(>2,  p.  619.« 


Char  XL  FLOWERS.  4  07 

sionally  vary  by  layers;  and  some  kinds  are  so  little  certain  in 
character  that  they  are  called  by  floriculturists  "catch-flowers."^^ 
Mr.  Dickson  has  ably  discussed  the  "  running  "  of  particoloured  or 
striped  carnations,  and  says  it  cannot  be  accounted  for  by  the 
compost  in  which  they  are  grown:  "layers  from  the  same  clean 
"  flower  would  come  part  of  them  clean  and  part  foul,  even  when 
"  subjected  to  precisely  the  same  treatment ;  and  frequently  one 
"  flower  alone  appears  influenced  by  the  taint,  the  remainder  coming 
"  perfectly  clean." ^*  This  running  of  the  parti-coloured  flowers 
apparently  is  a  case  of  reversion  by  buds  to  the  original  uniform 
tint  of  the  species. 

I  will  briefly  mention  some  other  cases  of  bud- variation  to  show 
how  many  plants  belonging  to  many  orders  have  varied  in  their 
flowers;  and  many  others  might  be  added.  I  have  seen  on  a  snap- 
dragon {Antirrhinum  majus)  white,  pink,  and  striped  flowers  on 
the  same  plant,  and  branches  with  striped  flowers  on  a  red-coloured 
variety.  On  a  double  stock  (Mathiola  incana)  I  have  seen  a  branch 
bearing  single  flowers ;  and  on  a  dingy-purple  double  variety  of 
the  wall-flower  (Chdranthus  cheiri),  a  branch  which  had  reverted  to 
the  ordinary  copper  colour.  On  other  branches  of  the  same  plant, 
some  flowers  were  exactly  divided  across  the  middle,  one  half  being 
purple  and  the  other  coppery;  but  some  of  the  smaller  petals 
towards  the  centre  of  thgse  same  flowers  were  purple  longitudinally 
streaked  with  coppery  colour,  or  coppery  streaked  with  purple. 
A  Cyclamen  ^^  has  been  observed  to  bear  white  and  pink  flowers  of 
two  forms,  the  one  resembling  the  Persicum  strain,  and  the  other 
the  Coum  strain.  Oenothera  biennis  has  been  seen^^  bearing  flowers 
of  three  different  colours.  The  hybrid  Gladiolus  coUilii  occasionally 
bears  uniformly  coloured  flowers,  and  one  case  is  recorded  ''^  of  all 
the  flowers  on  a  plant  thus  changing  colour.  A  Fuchsia  has  been 
seen^®  bearing  two  kinds  of  flowers.  Mirabilis  j'alapa  is  eminently 
sportive,  sometimes  bearing  on  the  same  root  pure  red,  yellow,  and 
white  flowers,  and  others  striped  with  various  combinations  of 
these  three  colours.^^  The  plants  of  the  Mirabilis,  which  bear 
such  extraordinarily  variable  flowers  in  most,  probably  in  all,  cases, 
owe  their  origin,  as  shown  by  Prof.  Lecoq,  to  crosses  between 
differently  coloured  varieties. 

Leaves  and  Shoots. — Changes,  through  bud-variation,  in  fruits  and 
flowers  have  hitherto  been  treated  of;  incidentally  some  remarkable 
modifications  in  t^e  leaves  and  shoots  of  the  rose  and  Paritium,  and 


53  '  Gard.  Chron.,'  1843,  p.  135.  ss  c  q^^^^  Chron.,'  1850,  p  53(1. 

"  Ibid.,  1842,  p.  55.  59  Bi-aun,    '  Kav  Soc.  Bot.    Wem  ' 

•"  •  Gard.  Chron.,'  1887,  p.  235.  1858,  p.  315  ;  Hopkirk's  'Flora  Ano- 

5^  Gartner,  'Ba.^tarderzeugung,'  s.  mala,'    p.   164;     Lecoq,    'Geograph. 

3t'>5.  Bot.  de   I'Europe,'  torn,  iii.,  1854,  p. 

"  Mr.  D.Beaton,  in  '  Cottage  Gar-  405;  and  '  De  la  Fecondation,'  1862, 

iener,'  I860,  p.  250.  p.  b03. 


408  BUD-VAKIATION.  Chap.  XI. 

in  a  lesser  degree  in  the  foliage  of  the  Pelargonium  and  Chrysan- 
themum, have  been  noticed.  I  will  now  add  a  few  more  cases  of 
variation  in  leaf-buds.  Verlot*'°  states  that  on  Aralia  trifoUafa, 
which  properly  has  leaves  with  three  leaflets,  branches  frequently 
appear  bearing  simple  leaves  of  various  forms;  these  can  be  propa- 
gated by  buds  or  by  grafting,  and  have  given  rise,  as  he  states,  to 
several  nominal  species. 

With  respect  to  trees,  the  history  of  but  tew  of  the  many  varieties 
with  curious  or  ornamental  foliage  is  known ;  but  several  probably 
have  originated  by  bud- variation.  Here  is  one  case : — An  old  ash- 
tree  {Fraxinus  excelsior)  in  the  grounds  of  Necton,  as  Mr.  Mason 
states,  "  for  many  years  has  had  one  bough  of  a  totally  different 
character  to  the  rest  of  the  tree,  or  of  any  other  ash-tree  which  I 
have  seen;  being  short-jointed  and  densely  covered  with  foliage." 
It  was  ascertained,  that  this  variety  could  be  propagated  by 
grafts.^^  The  varieties  of  some  trees  with  cut  leaves,  as  the  oak- 
leaved  laburnum,  the  parsley-leaved  vine,  and  especially  the  fern- 
leaved  beech,  are  apt  to  revert  by  buds  to  the  common  forms.*^^ 
The  fern-like  leaves  of  the  beech  sometimes  revert  only  partially, 
and  the  branches  display  here  and  there  sprouts  bearing  common 
leaves,  fern-like,  and  variously  shaped  leaves.  Such  cases  differ 
but  little  from  the  so-called  heterophyllus  varieties,  in  which  the 
tree  habitually  bears  leaves  of  various  forms;  but  it  is  probable 
that  most  heterophyllous  trees  have  originated  as  seedlings.  There 
is  a  sub-variety  of  the  weeping  willow  with  leaves  rolled  up  into 
a  spiral  coil ;  and  Mr.  Masters  states  that  a  tree  of  this  kind  kept 
true  in  his  garden  for  twenty-five  years,  and  then  threw  out  a  single 
upright  shoot  bearing  flat  leaves.''^ 

I  have  often  noticed  single  twigs  and  branches  on  beech  and 
other  trees  with  their  leaves  fully  expanded  before  those  on  the 
other  branches  had  opened;  and  as  there  was  nothing  in  their 
exposure  or  character  to  account  for  this  difference,  I  presume  that 
they  had  appeared  as  bud-variations,  like  the  early  and  late  fruit- 
maturing  varieties  of  the  peach  and  nectarine. 

Gryj)togamic  plants  are  liable  to  bud-variation,  for  fronds  on 
the  same  fern  often  display  remarkable  deviations  of  structure. 
Spores,  which  are  of  the  nature  of  buds,  taken  from  such  abnormal 
fronds,  reproduce,  with  remarkable  fidelity,  the  same  variety,  after 
passing  through  the  sexual  stage.''* 

With  respect  to  colour,  leaves  often  become  by  bud-variation 
zoned,  blotched,  or  spotted  with  white,  yellow,  and  red;  and  this 


««   'Des  VarieteV  1865,  p.  5.  tution  Lecture,'  March  16,  1860. 

^MV.    Mason,    in    '  Gard.    Chron.,'  ^"^  &g  Mr.  W.  K.  Bridgman's  curious 

18+3,  p.  878.  paper    in  'Annals  and    Mag.  of  Nat. 

^2^1ex.     Braun,    'Ray    Soc.     Bot.  Hist.,*  December,  1861;    also  Mr.  J. 

Mom  ,*  1853,  p.  315  ;  '  Gard,  Chron  ,  Scott,  '  Bot  Soc.  Edinburgh,'  June  12, 

i84l,  p.  320.  1862. 


63 


rir.  M.  T.  Masters, '  Royal  Insti- 


Chap.  XI.  LEAVES   AND  SHOOTS.  409 

occasionally  occurs  even  with  plants  in  a  state  of  nature.  Yariega- 
tion,  however,  appears  still  more  frequently  in  plants  produced 
from  seed ;  even  the  cotyledons  or  seed-leaves  being  thus  affected.''^ 
There  have  been  endless  disputes  whether  variegation  should  be 
considered  as  a  disease.  In  a  future  chapter  we  shall  see  that  it  is 
much  influenced,  both  in  the  case  of  seedlings  and  of  mature  plants, 
by  the  nature  of  the  soil.  Plants  which  have  become  variegated  as 
seedlings,  generally  transmit  their  character  by  seed  to  a  large 
proportion  of  their  progeny ;  and  Mr.  Salter  has  given  me  a  list  of 
eight  genera  in  which  this  occurred.''^  Sir  F.  Pollock  has  given  me 
more  precise  information :  he  sowed  seed  from  a  variegated  plant 
of  Ballota  nigra  which  was  found  growing  wild,  and  thirty  per 
cent,  of  the  seedlings  were  variegated ;  seed  from  these  latter  being 
sown,  sixty  per  cent,  came  up  variegated.  When  branches  become 
variegated  by  bud-variation,  and  the  variety  is  attempted  to  be 
propagated  by  seed,  the  seedlings  are  rarely  variegated  :  Mr.  Salter 
found  this  to  be  the  case  with  plants  belonging  to  eleven  genera, 
in  which  the  greater  number  of  the  seedlings  proved  to  be  green- 
leaved  ;  yet  a  few  were  slightly  variegated,  or  were  quite  white,  but 
none  were  worth  keeping.  Variegated  plants,  whether  originally 
produced  from  seeds  or  buds,  can  generally  be  propagated  by 
budding,  grafting,  &c. ;  but  all  are  apt  to  revert  by  bud- variation 
to  their  ordinary  foliage.  This  tendency,  however,  differs  much  in 
the  varieties  of  even  the  same  species ;  for  instance,  the  golden- 
striped  variety  of  Euonymus  japonicus  "  is  very  liable  to  run  back 
to  the  green-leaved,  while  the  silver-striped  variety  hardly  ever 
changes."  ^^  I  have  seen  a  variety  of  the  holly,  with  its  leaves 
having  a  central  yellow  patch,  which  had  everywhere  partially 
reverted  to  the  ordinary  foliage,  so  that  on  the  same  small  branch 
there  were  many  twigs  of  both  kinds.  In  the  pelargonium,  and  in 
some  other  plants,  variegation  is  generally  accompanied  by  some 
degree  of  dwarfing,  as  is  well  exemplified  in  the  ''  Dandy  "  pelargo- 
nium. When  such  dwarf  varieties  sport  back  by  buds  or  suckers 
to  the  ordinary  foliage,  the  dwarfed  stature  still  remains,^^  It  is 
remarkable  that  plants  propagated  from  branches  which  have 
reverted  from  variegated  to  plain  leaves  ^^  do  not  always  (or  never, 
as  one  observer  asserts)  perfectly  resemble  the  original  plain-leaved 
plant  from  which  the  variegated  branch  arose :  it  seems  that  a 
plant,  in  passing  by  bud- variation  from  plain  leaves  to  variegated, 
and  back  again  from  variegated  to  plain,  is  generally  in  some  degree 
affected  so  as  to  assume  a  slightly  different  aspect. 

Bud-variation  hy  Suckers,  Tubers,  and  BuTbs. — All  the  cases 
hitherto  given  of  bud- variation  in  fruits,  flowers,  leaves,  and  shoots, 
have  been  confined  to  buds  on  the  stems  or  branches,  with  the 

«5  «  Journal  of  Horticulture/  1861,  "  '  Gard.  Chron.,*  1844,  p.  86. 

p.  336  ;  Vei-lot,  'Des  Varietes,' p.  76.  ^^  j^id.,  1861,  p.  963. 

««  /Sct'alsoVerlot, 'DesVarieteSj'p.  ^^  Ibid.,    1861,  p.    433;   'Cottage 

"4.  Gardener,'  1860,  p.  2. 


410  BUD-VARIATION.  Chap.  XI. 

exception  of  a  few  cases  incidentally  noticed  of  varying  suckers  in 
the  rose,  pelargonium,  and  chrysanthemum.  I  will  now  give  a  few 
instances  of  variation  in  subterranean  buds,  that  is,  by  suckers, 
tubers,  and  bulbs ;  not  that  there  is  any  essential  difference  between 
buds  above  and  beneath  the  ground.  Mr.  Salter  informs  me  that 
two  variegated  varieties  of  Phlox  originated  as  suckers;  but  I 
should  not  have  thought  these  worth  mentioning,  had  not  Mr.  Salter 
found,  after  repeated  trials,  that  he  could  not  propagate  them  by 
"  root-joints,"  whereas,  the  variegated  Tussilago  farfara  can  thus  be 
safely  propagated  ;'°  but  this  latter  plant  may  have  originated  as  a 
variegated  seedling,  which  would  account  for  its  greater  fixedness 
of  character.  The  Barberry  (Berheris  vulgaris)  offers  an  analogous 
case ;  there  is  a  well-known  variety  with  seedless  fruit,  which  can 
be  propagated  by  cuttings  or  layers ;  but  suckers  always  revert  to 
the  common  form,  which  produces  fruit  containing  seeds.^^  My 
father  repeatedly  tried  this  experiment,  and  always  with  the 
same  result.  I  may  here  mention  that  maize  and  wheat  some- 
times produce  new  varieties  from  the  stock  or  root,  as  does  the 
sugar- cane.'^^ 

Turning  now  to  tubers :  in  the  common  Potato  {Solarium  tulerosum) 
a  single  bud  or  eye  sometimes  varies  and  produces  a  new  variety ; 
or,  occasionally,  and  this  is  a  much  more  remarkable  circumstance, 
all  the  eyes  in  a  tubor  vary  in  the  same  manner  and  at  the  same 
time,  so  that  the  whole  tuber  assumes  a  new  character.  Por  instance, 
a  single  eye  in  a  tuber  of  the  old  Forty-fold  potato,  which  is  a  purple 
variety,  was  observed ^^  to  become  white;  this  eye  was  cut  out  and 
planted  separately,  and  the  kind  has  since  been  largely  propagated. 
Kemp's  potato  is  properly  white,  but  a  plant  in  Lancashire  produced 
two  tubers  which  were  red,  and  two  which  were  white;  the  red 


'"'  M.  Lemoine  (quoted  in  '  Gard.  Ribbon  cane  has  here  "  sported  into  a 
Chron.,'  1867.  p.  74)  has  lately  ob-  perfectly  green  cane  and  a  perfectly  red 
served  that  the  Symphytum  with  cane  from  the  same  head.  I  veriiied  this 
variegated  leaves  cannot  be  propa-  myself,  and  saw  at  least  200  instances 
gated  by  division  of  the  roots.  He  in  the  same  plantation,  and  the  fact 
jilso  found  that  out  of  500  plants  of  a  has  completely  upset  all  our  pre- 
Phlox  with  striped  flowers,  which  conceived  ideas  of  the  difference  ot 
had  been  propagated  by  root-division,  colour  being  permanent.  The  con- 
only  seven  or  eight  produced  striped  version  of  a  striped  cane  into  a 
flowers.  See  also,  on  striped  Pe-  green  cane  was  not  uncommon,  but 
largoniums,  '  Gard.  Chron.,'  1867,  the  change  into  a  red  cane  univer- 
p.  1000.  sally  disbelieved,  and  that  both  events 

^^  Anderson's '  Recreations  in  Agri-  should     occur     in     the    same     plant 

culture,*  vol.  v.  p.  152.  incredible.        I     find,     however,     in 

''"^  For  wheat,  see  '  Improvement  of  Fleischman's  '  Report  on  Sugar  Culti- 

the  Cereals,'   by  P.  ShirrefF,  1873,  p.  vation  in  Louisiana  for  18i8,  by    the 

47.     For      maize      and     sugar-cane,  American  Patent  Office,  the   circum- 

Carriere,    ibid.,   pp.    40,    42.       With  stance  is  mentioned,  but  he  says  he 

respect    to    the   sugar-cane,    Mr.    J.  never  saw  it  himself." 
Caldwell,  of  Mauritius,    says  ('  Gar-  ^^  <  Qard.  Chron.,'  1857,  p.  f562. 

dcner'.s  Chronicle,'  1874,  p.  316}  the 


(Jhap,  XL    BY  SUCKEES,  TUBERS,  AND  BULBS.        411 

kind  was  propagated  in  tlie  usual  manner  by  eyes,  and  kept  true 
to  its  new  colour,  and,  being  found  a  more  productive  yariety, 
soon  became  widely  known  under  the  name  of  Taylors  Forty-foldJ'' 
The  old  Forty-fold  potato,  as  already  stated,  is  a  purj^le  yariety; 
but  a  plant  long  cultiyated  on  the  same  ground  produced,  not,  as  in 
the  case  above  given,  a  single  white  eye,  but  a  whole  white  tuber, 
which  has  since  been  propagated  and  keeps  trueJ^  Seyeral  cases 
haye  been  recorded  of  large  portions  of  whole  rows  of  potatoes 
slightly  changing  their  characterJ^ 

Dahlias  propagated  by  tubers  under  the  hot  climate  of  St. 
Domingo  yary  much;  Sir  K.  Schomburgk  gives  the  case  of  the 
"  Butterfly  variety,"  which  the  second  year  produced  on  the  same 
plant  "double  and  single  flowers;  here  white  petals  edged  with 
"  maroon;  there  of  a  uniform  deep  maroon.""  Mr.  Bree  also 
mentions  a  plant  "  which  bore  two  different  kinds  of  self-coloured 
"  flowers,  as  well  as  a  third  kind  which  partook  of  both  colours 
"  beautifully  intermixed."'^  Another  case  is  described  of  a  dahlia 
with  purple  flowers  which  bore  a  white  flower  streaked  with 
purple.''^ 

Considering  how  long  and  extensiyely  many  Bulbous  plants 
liave  been  cultivated,  and  how  numerous  are  the  yarieties  produced 
from  seed,  these  plants  haye  not  perhaps  yaried  so  much  by  offsets, 
— that  is,  by  the  pi'oduction  of  new  bulbs, — as  might  haye  been 
expected.  With  the  Hyacinth,  howeyer,  several  instances  haye 
been  given  by  M.  Carriere.  A  case  also  has  been  recorded  of  a  blue 
yariety  which  for  three  successive  years  gaye  offsets  producing 
white  flowers  with  a  red  centre.^^  Another  hyacinth  bore  ^^  on  the 
same  truss  a  perfectly  pink  and  a  perfectly  blue  flower.  I  have 
seen  a  bulb  producing  at  the  same  time  one  stalk  or  truss  with  fine 
blue  flowers,  another  with  fine  red  flowers,  and  a  third  with  blue 
flowers  on  one  side  and  red  on  the  other;  seyeral  of  the  flowers 
being  also  longitudinally  striped  red  and  blue. 

]VIr.  John  Scott  informs  me  that  in  1862  ImatophylluTn  miniatum, 
in  the  Botanic  Gardens  of  Edinburgh,  threw  up  a  sucker  which 
differed  from  the  normal  form,  in  the  leayes  being  two-ranked 
instead  of  four-ranked.  The  leayes  were  also  smaller,  with  the 
upper  surface  raised  instead  of  being  channelled. 

In  the  propagation  of  Tidips,  seedlings  are  raised,  called  selfs  or 
ireeders,  which,  "  consist  of  one  plain  colour  on  a  white  or  yellow. 
"  bottom.  These,  being  cultivated  on  a  dry  and  rather  poor  soil, 
"  become  broken  or  variegated  and  produce  new  yarieties.  The 
"  time  that  elapses  before  they  break  yaries  from  one  to  twenty 

'*  '  Gard.  Chrou.,'  1841,  p.  814-.  ^^  Loudon's  •  Gard.  Mag.,'  vol.  viii., 

•5  Ibid.,  1857,  p.  613.  1832,  p.  94. 

^6  Ibid.,     1857,    p.    679.     See  also  ^»  '  Gard.    Chron.,'    1850,  p.    536 ; 

Philips,  'Hist,  of  Vegetables,'  vol.  ii.  and  1842,  p.  729. 
p.  91,  for  other  and  similar  accounts.  *"  '  DesJacintheij'&o.,  Amsterdam, 

"  '  Journal    of  Proc.   Linn.  Soc.,'  1768,  p.  122. 
voL  ii.  Botany,  p.  132.  ^i  i  Q.^^d.  Chron.,'  1845,  p.  212. 


412  BUD-VARIATION.  Chap.  XL 

"  years  or  more,  and  sometimes  this  change  never  takes  place."  ^^ 
The  broken  or  variegated  colours  which  give  value  to  all  tulips  are 
due  to  bud-variation ;  for  although  the  Bybloemens  and  some  other 
kinds  have  been  raised  from  several  distinct  breeders,  yet  all  the 
Baguets  are  said  to  have  come  from  a  single  breeder  or  seedling. 
This  bud- variation,  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  MM.  Vilmorin 
and  Verlot,^^  is  probably  an  attempt  to  revert  to  that  uniform 
colour  which  is  natural  to  the  species.  A  tulip,  however,  which  has 
already  become  broken,  when  treated  with  too  strong  manure,  is 
liable  to  flush  or  lose  by  a  second  act  of  reversion  its  variegated 
colours.  Some  kinds,  as  Imperatrix  Florum,  are  much  more  liable 
than  others  to  flushing;  and  Mr.  Dickson  maintains*^  that  this  can 
no  more  be  accounted  for  than  the  variation  of  any  other  plant, 
lie  believes  that  English  growers,  from  care  in  choosing  seed 
from  broken  flowers  instead  of  from  plain  flowers,  have  to  a 
certain  extent  diminished  the  tendency  in  flowers  already  broken 
to  flushing  or  secondary  reversion.  Iris  xiphium,  according  to 
M.  Carriere  (p.  65),  behaves  in  nearly  the  same  manner,  as  do  so 
many  tuHps. 

During  two  consecutive  years  all  the  early  flowers  in  a  bed  of 
Tigridia  conchiflora  ^^  resembled  those  of  the  old  T.  pavonia ;  but 
the  later  flowers  assumed  their  proper  colour  of  fine  yellow,  spotte4 
with  crimson.  An  apparently  authentic  account  has  been  published*^'' 
of  two  forms  of  Hemerocallis,  which  have  been  universally  con- 
sidered as  distinct  species,  changing  into  each  other ;  for  the  roots 
of  the  large-flowered  tawny  B./ulva,  being  divided  and  planted  in 
a  different  soil  and  place,  produced  the  small-flowered  H.  flava,  as 
well  as  some  intermediate  forms.  It  is  doubtful  whether  such 
cases  as  these  latter,  as  well  as  the  "  flushing "'  of  broken  tulips  and 
the  "  running  "  of  particoloured  carnations, — that  is,  their  more  or 
less  complete  return  to  a  uniform  tint, — ought  to  be  classed  under 
bud-variation,  or  ought  to  be  retained  for  the  chapter  in 'which  I 
treat  of  the  direct  action  of  the  conditions  of  life  on  organic  beings. 
These  cases,  however,  have  this  much  in  bud-variation,  that  the 
change  is  effected  through  buds  and  not  through  seminal  re- 
production. But,  on  tlie  other  hand,  there  is  this  difference— that 
in  ordinary  cases  of  bud- variation,  one  bud  alone  changes,  whilst  in 
the  foregoing  cases  all  the  buds  on  the  same  plant  were  modified 
together.  With  the  potato,  we  have  seen  an  intermediate  case,  for 
all  the  eyes  in  one  tuber  simultaneously  changed  their  character. 

I  will  conclude  with  a  few  allied  cases,  which  may  be  ranked 
either  under  bud-variation,  or  under  the  direct  action  of  tlie 
condilions  of  life.  When  the  common  HeiDatica  is  transplanted  from 


^2  Loudon's  '  Encyclopaedia  of  Gar-  1842,  p.  55. 
deniug,'  p.  1024.  «^  '  Gard.  Chron.,'  1849,  p.  565. 

*^  '  Production  des  Vanete's,'  1865,  ^^  '  Transact.  Linn.  Soc,,'  voL  ii,  p. 

p,  63.  354. 

"  'Gard.  Chron,,'   1841,  p.   782 j 


Chap.  XL  GRAFT-HYBRIDS.  41 S 

its  native  woods,  the  flowers  change  colour,  even  during  the  lirst 
year.^^  It  is  notorious  that  the  improved  varieties  of  the  Hearts- 
ease (  Viola  tricolo7'),  when  transplanted,  often  produce  flowers  widely 
difierent  in  size,  form,  and  colour :  for  instance,  I  transplanted  a 
large  uniformly-coloured  dark  purple  variety,  whilst  in  full  flower, 
and  it  then  produced  much  smaller,  more  elongated  flowers,  with 
the  lower  petals  yellow ;  these  were  succeeded  by  flowers  marked 
with  large  purple  spots,  and  ultimately,  towards  the  end  of  the 
same  summer,  by  the  original  large  dark  purple  flowers.  The 
slight  changes  which  some  fruit-trees  undergo  from  being  grafted 
and  regrafted  on  various  stocks,^^  were  considered  by  Andrew 
Knight ^^  as  closely  allied  to  "sporting  branches,"  or  bud- variations. 
Again,  we  have  the  case  of  young  fruit-trees  changing  their 
character  as  they  grow  old ;  seedling  pears,  for  instance,  lose  with 
age  their  spines  and  improve  in  the  flavour  of  their  fruit.  Weeping 
birch-trees,  when  grafted  on  the  common  variety,  do  not  acquire  a 
perfect  pendulous  habit  until  they  grow  old :  on  the  other  hand,  I 
shall  hereafter  give  the  case  of  some  weeping  ashes  which  slowly 
and  gradually  assumed  an  upright  habit  of  growth.  All  such 
changes,  dependent  on  age,  may  be  compared  with  the  changes, 
alluded  to  in  the  last  chapter,  which  many  trees  naturally  undergo; 
as  in  the  case  of  the  Deodar  and  Cedar  of  Lebanon,  which  are 
unlike  in  youth,  whilst  they  closely  resemble  each  other  in  old 
age ;  and  as  with  certain  oaks,  and  with  some  varieties  of  the  lime 
and  ha^^thorn.^° 

Graft-hybrids. — Before  giving  a  summary  on  Bud- variation  I 
will  discuss  some  singular  and  anomalous  cases,  v\^hich  are 
more  or  less  closely  related  to  this  same  subject.  I  will 
begin  with  the  famous  case  of  Adam's  laburnum  or  Cytisus 
adami,  a  form  or  hybrid  intermediate  between  two  very  dis- 
tinct species,  namely,  C.  laburnum  and  purpureus,  the  common 
and  purple  laburnum ;  but  as  this  ti-ee  has  often  been 
described,  I  will  be  as  brief  as  I  can. 

Throughout  Europe,  in  different  soils  and  under  difierent  climates, 


*^  Godron,  *  De  I'Espece,'  torn.  ii.  p.  of  the  Aria.    The  grafted  shoots  were 

84.  also     much     hardier,    and     flowered 

^^  M.  Carriere  has  lately  described,  earlier,  than  those  on  the  ungrafted 

in    the    *  Revue   Horticole,*   (Dec.    1,  Aria. 

1866,  p.  457,)  an  extraordinary  case.  ^'-^  '  Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,'  vol  ii.  p. 

He  twice  inserted  grafts  of  the  Aria  160. 

vestita  on  thorn-trees  f  epincs)  growing  ^^  For  the  cases  of  oaks,  see  Alph. 

in  pots  ;  and  the  grafts,  as  the^'  grew,  De    Candolle     in     '  Bibl.     Uuivers.,' 

produced    shoots    with    bark,    buds,  Geneva,  Nov.    1862;    for   limes,  &o., 

leaves,   petioles,   petals,   and    flower-  Loudon's  '  Gard  Mag.,' vol.  xi.,  1835, 

stalks,  all  widely  different  from  those  p.  503. 


414  GEAFT-HYBRIDS.  Chap.  XL 

branches  on  this  tree  have  repeatedly  and  suddenly  reverted  to  the 
two  parent- species  in  their  flowers  and  leaves.  To  behold  mingled 
on  the  same  tree  tufts  of  dingy-red,  bright  yellow,  and  purple 
flowers,  borne  on  branches  having  widely  different  leaves  and 
manner  of  growth,  is  a  surprising  sight.  The  same  raceme  some- 
times bears  two  kinds  of  flowers ;  and  I  have  seen  a  single  flower 
exactly  divided  into  halves,  one  side  being  bright  yellow  and  the 
other  purple ;  so  that  one  half  of  the  standard-petal  was  yellow  and 
of  larger  size,  and  the  other  half  purple  and  smaller.  In  another 
flower  the  whole  corolla  was  bright  yellow,  but  exactly  half  the 
calyx  was  purple.  In  another,  one  of  the  dingy-red  wing-petals  had  a 
narrow  bright  y6llow  stripe  on  it ;  and  lastly,  in  another  flower, 
one  of  the  stamens,  which  had  become  slightly  foliaceous,  was  half 
yellow  and  half  purple;  so  that  the  tendency  to  segregation  of 
character  or  reversion  affects  even  single  parts  and  organs.^^  The 
most  remarkable  fact  about  this  tree  is  that  in  its  intermediate 
state,  even  when  growing  near  both  parent- species,  it  is  quite 
sterile ;  but  when  the  flowers  become  pure  yellow  or  pure  purple 
they  yield  seed.  I  believe  that  the  pods  from  the  yellow  flowers 
yield  a  full  complement  of  seed;  they  certainly  yield  a  larger 
number.  Two  seedlings  raised  by  Mr.  Herbert  from  such  seed^^ 
exhibited  a  purple  tinge  on  the  stalks  of  their  flowers ;  but  several 
seedlings  raised  by  myself  resembled  in  every  character  the  common 
laburnum,  with  the  exception  that  some  of  them  had  remarkably 
long  racemes :  these  seedlings  were  perfectly  fertile.  That  su'ch 
purity  of  character  and  fertility  should  be  suddenly  reacquired 
from  so  hybridised  and  sterile  a  form  is  an  astonishing  pheno- 
menon. The  branches  with  purple  flowers  appear  at  first  sight 
exactly  to  resemble  those  of  C.  p^irpureus ;  but  on  careful  com- 
parison I  found  that  they  differed  from  the  pure  species  in  the 
shoots  being  thicker,  the  leaves  a  little  broader,  and  the  flowers 
slightly  shorter,  with  the  corolla  and  calyx  less  brightly  purple; 
the  basal  part  of  the  standard-petal  also  plainly  showed  a  trace  of 
the  yellow  stain.  So  that  the  flowers,  at  least  in  this  instance,  had 
not  perfectly  recovered  their  true  character;  and  in  accordance 
with  this,  they  were  not  perfectly  fertile,  for  many  of  the  pods 
contained  no  seed,  some  produced  one,  and  very  few  contained  as 
many  as  two  seeds ;  whilst  numerous  pods  on  a  tree  of  the  pure  C. 
purpureus  in  my  garden  contained  three,  four,  and  five  fine  seeds. 
The  pollen,  moreover,  was  very  imperfect,  a  multitude  of  grains 
being  small  and  shrivelled;  and  this  is  a  singular  fact;  for,  as  we 
shall  immediately  see,  the  pollen-grains  in  the  dingy-red  and  sterile 
flowers  on  the  parent-tree,  were,  in  external  appearance,  in  a  much 


®^  For  analogous  facts,  see  Braun,  forschender  Freundc,'  Jane,  1873,  p. 

'  Rejuvenescence,'   in  ■  Ray   See.  Bot.  63. 

Jlem.,'    1853,    p.    320 ;    and    '  Card.  ^^  <  Journal   of  Hort.  Soc.,*  vol.  ii. 

Chron.,'   1842,  p.   397  ;   also   Braun,  1847,  p.  100. 
in  'Sitzungsberichte  der  Ges  natur- 


Ckap.  XL  GRAFT-HYBRIDS.  415 

better  state,  aud  included  very  few  shrivelled  grains.  Although  tho 
pollen  of  the  reverted  purple  flowers  was  in  so  poor  a  condition, 
the  ovules  were  well  formed^  and  the  seeds,  when  mature,  germi- 
nated freely  with  me.  Mr.  Herbert  raised  plants  from  seeds  of 
the  reverted  purple  flowers,  and  they  differed  a  vtry  little  from  the 
usual  state  of  C.  purpureus.  Some  which  I  raised  in  the  same 
manner  did  not  differ  at  all,  either  in  the  character  of  their  flowers  or 
of  the  whole  bush,  from  the  pure  C.  purpureus. 

Prof.  Caspary  has  examined  the  ovules  of  the  dingy-red  and 
sterile  flowers  in  several  plants  of  0.  adami  on  the  Continent,^^  and 
finds  them  generally  monstrous.  In  three  plants  examined  by  me 
in  England,  the  ovules  were  likewise  monstrous,  the  nucleus 
varying  much  in  shape,  and  projecting  ii-regularly  beyond  the 
proper  coats.  The  pollen  grains,  on  the  other  hand,  judging  from 
their  external  appearance,  were  remarkably  good,  and  readily  pro- 
truded their  tubes.  By  repeatedly  counting,  under  the  microscope, 
the  proportional  number  of  bad  grains,  Prof.  Caspary  ascertained 
that  only  2'5  per  cent,  were  bad,  which  is  a  less  proportion  than  in 
the  pollen  of  three  pure  species  of  Cytisus  in  their  cultivated  state, 
viz.,  C.  pitrpureus,  laburnum,  and  ulpinus.  Although  the  pollen  of 
C.  adami  is  thus  in  appearance  good,  it  does  not  follow,  accord- 
ing to  M.  Nandin's  observation^*  on  Mirabilis,  that  it  would  be 
functionally  effective.  The  fact  of  the  ovules  of  C.  adami  being 
monstrous,  and  the  pollen  apparently  sound,  is  all  the  more  re- 
markable, because  it  is  opposed  to  what  usually  occurs  not  only 
with  most  hybrids,^^  but  with  two  hybrids  in  the  same  genus, 
namely  in  C.  purpureo-elongatus,  and  C.  alpino-lahurnum.  In  both 
these  hybrids,  the  ovules,  as  observed  by  Prof.  Caspary  and  myself, 
were  well-formed,  whilst  many  of  the  pollen-grains  were  ill-formed; 
in  the  latter  hybrid  20*3  per  cent.,  and  in  the  former  no  less  than 
84-8  per  cent,  of  the  grains  were  ascertained  by  Prof  Caspary  to  be 
bad.  This  unusual  condition  of  the  male  and  female  reproductive 
elements  in  C.  adami  has  been  used  by  Prof.  Caspary  as  an  argu- 
ment against  this  plant  being  considered  as  an  ordinary  hybrid 
produced  from  seed ;  but  we  should  remember  that  with  hybrids 
the  ovules  have  not  been  examined  nearly  so  frequently  as  the 
Xiollen,  and  they  may  be  much  oftener  imperfect  than  is  generally 
supposed.  Dr.  E.  Bornet,  of  Antibes,  informs  me  (through  Mr.  J. 
Traherne  Moggridge)  that  with  hybrid  Cisti  the  ovarium  is  fre- 
quently deformed,  the  ovules  being  in  some  cases  quite  absent,  and 
in  other  cases  incapable  of  fertilisation. 

Several  theories  have  been  propounded  to  account  for  the  origin 
of  C.  adami,  and  for  the  transformations  which  it  undergoes.     The 


'3  See  '  Transact,  of  Hort.  Congress  ^*  *  Nouvelles    Arohircs    du    Ma- 

of  Amsterdam,'    1865  ;     but  I    owe  seum,'  torn.  i.  p.  143. 
most  of  the  following  information  to  ^^  See  on  this  head,  Nnudin,  ibid., 

Frof.  Caspary's  letters.  p.  141. 


416  GRAFT-HYBRIDS.  Chap.  XI. 

whole  case  has  been  attributed  by  some  authors  to  bud- variation ; 
but  considering  the  wide  difference  between  C.  lahurnum  and 
purpureus,  both  of  which  are  natural  species,  and  considering  the 
sterility  of  the  intermediate  form,  this  view  may  be  summarily 
rejected.  We  shall  presently  see  that,  with  hybrid  plants,  two 
embryos  differing  in  their  characters  may  be  developed  within  the 
same  seed  and  cohere;  and  it  has  been  supposed  that  0.  adami 
thus  originated.  Many  botanists  maintain  that  C.  <(dami  is  a 
hybrid  produced  in  the  common  way  by  seed,  and  that  it  has 
reverted  by  buds  to  its  two  parent-forms.  Negative  results  are  not 
of  much  value ;  but  Reisseck,  Caspary,  and  myself,  tried  in  vain  to 
cross  C.  laburnum  and  purpureus ;  when  I  fertilised  the  former  with 
pollen  of  the  latter,  I  had  the  nearest  approach  to  success,  for  pods 
were  formed,  but  in  sixteen  days  after  the  withering  of  the  flowers, 
they  fell  off.  Nevertheless,  the  belief  that  O.  adami  is  a  spon- 
taneously produced  hybrid  between  these  two  species  is  supported 
by  the  fact  that  such  hybrids  have  arisen  in  this  genus.  In  a  bed 
of  seedlings  from  (J.  elongatus,  which  grew  near  to  C.  purpureus,  and 
was  probably  fertilised  by  it  through  the  agency  of  insects  (for 
these,  as  I  know  by  experiment,  play  an  important  part  in  the  fer- 
tilisation of  the  laburnum),  the  sterile  hybrid  C.  p)urpureo-elorigat'ds 
appeared.^^  Thus,  also,  Waterer's  laburnum,  the  C.  alpmc-Jahur- 
num,^''  spontaneously  ap^Deared,  as  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  Waterer, 
in  a  bed  of  seedlings. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  have  a  clear  and  distinct  account  given  to 
Poiteau,^^  by  M.  Adam,  who  raised  the  plant,  showing  that  C.  adami 
is  not  an  ordinary  hybrid;  but  is  what  may  be  called  a  graft-hybrid, 
that  is,  one  produced  from  the  united  cellular  tissue  of  two  distinct 
species.  M.  Adam  inserted  in  the  usual  manner  a  shield  of  the 
bark  of  C.  purpureus  into  a  stock  of  C.  laburnum ;  and  the  bud  lay 
dormant,  as  often  haj^pens,  for  a  year ;  the  shield  then  produced 
many  buds  and  shoots,  one  of  which  grew  more  upright  and 
vigorous  with  larger  leaves  than  the  shoots  of  0.  purpnireus,  and 


^^  Bi'aun,  in  '  Bot.  Mem.  Ray.  Soc.,*  from  both  parent-species,  during  some 

1853,  p.  xxiii.  seasons  yielded  no  good  seeds  ;  but  in 

^^  This  hybrid  has  never  been  de-  1866  it  was  unusually  fertile,  and  its 

scribed.    It  is  exactly  intermediate  in  long  racemes  produced   from  one   to 

foliao-e,  time  of  flowering,  dark  strise  occasionally  even   four  pods.      Many 

at    the   base   of   the   standard   petal,  of  the  pods   contained  no  good  seeds, 

hairiness    of    the    ovarium,    and    in  but  generally  they  contained  a  single 

almost    every    other    character,    be-  apparently  good  seed,  sometimes  two, 

tween  C.  lanirnum  and  alplnus  ;  but  and  in  one  case  three  seeds.     Some  of 

it  approaches  the  former  species  more  these  seeds  germinated,  and   I   raised 

nearly  in  colour,   and    exceeds   it   in  two  trees  from  them  ;  one  resembles 

the  length  of  the  racemes.     We  have  the   present   form;    the   other  has   a 

before  sefeii  that  20'3  per  cent,  of  its  remarkable    dwarf     character    with 

pollen-grains  are  ill-formed  and  small  leaves,  but  has  not  yet  flowered. 
worthless.     My  plant,  though  grow-  ^®  '  Aunales  de  la  Soc.  de  I'Hort.  de 

ing   not  above  thirty  or  forty  yards  Paris,'  torn,  vii.,  1830,  p.  93. 


Chap.  XI.  GRAFT-HYBRIDS.  417 

was  consequently  propagated.  Now  it  deserves  especial  notice  that 
tliese  plants  were  sold  by  M.  Adam,  as  a  variety  of  C.  purpureusj 
before  they  had  flowered;  and  the  account  was  published  by 
Poiteau  after  the  plants  had  flowered,  but  before  they  had  ex- 
hibited their  remarkable  tendency  to  revert  into  the  two  parent 
species.  So  that  tliere  was  no  conceivable  motive  for  falsification, 
and  it  is  difiicult  to  see  how  there  could  have  been  any  error.^^  If 
we  admit  as  true  M.  Adam's  account,  we  must  admit  the  extra- 
ordinary fact  that  two  distinct  species  can  unite  by  their  cellular 
tissue,  and  subsequently  produce  a  plant  bearing  leaves  and  sierilo 
flowers  intermediate  in  character  between  the  scion  and  stock,  and 
producing  buds  liable  to  reversion ;  in  short,  resembling  in  every 
important  respect  a  hybrid  formed  in  the  ordinary  way  by  seminal 
reproduction. 

I  will  therefore  give  all  the  facts  which  I  have  been  able  to 
collect  on  the  formation  of  hybrids  between  distinct  species 
or  varieties,  without  the  intervention  of  the  sexual  organs.  For 
if,  as  I  am  now  convinced,  this  is  possible,  it  is  a  most  im- 
portant fact,  which  will  sooner  or  later  change  the  views  held 
by  physiologists  with  respect  to  sexual  reproduction.  A 
sufficient  body  of  facts  will  afterwards  be  adduced,  showing 
that  the  segregation  or  separation  of  the  characters  of  the 
two  parent- forms  by  bud-variation,  as  in  the  case  of  Cylisus 
adami,  is  not  an  unusual  though  a  striking  phenomenon. 
We  shall  further  see  that  a  whole  bud  may  thus  revert,  or 
only  half,  or  some  smaller  segment. 

The  famous  Mzzarria  Orange  offers  a  strictly  parallel  case  to  that 
of  Cytisns  wlami.  The  gardener  who  in  1644  in  Florence  raised 
this  tree,  declared  that  it  was  a  seedling  which  had  been  grafted ; 
and  after  the  graft  had  perished,  the  stock  sprouted  and  produced 
the  bizzarria.  Gallesio,  who  carefully  examined  several  living 
specimens  and  compared  them  with  the  description  given  by  the 
original  describer,  P.  Nato,^"''  states  that  the  tree  produces  at  the  same 
time  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit  identical  with  the  bitter  orange  and 
with  the  citron  of  Florence,  and  likewise  compound  fruit,  with  the 
two  kinds  either  blended  together,  both  externally  and  internally, 

^-  An  account  was  given  in  th^  *  Gar-  ag<;&rtained    that    this    occurred     in 

dener's  Chronicle  '  (1857,  pp.  382,  400)  another  instance. 

of  a  common  laburnum  on  which  grafts  ""^  Gallesio, '  Gli  Agrumi  del  Giard. 

oi  G.  purpureus  had  been  inserted,  and  Bot.  Agrar.  di.  Firenze,'  1839,  p.  11. 

which  graiaally  assumed  the  charac-  In    his    'Traite  du  Citrus,'    1811,    p. 

ter  of   C.  adami ;   but  I  have    little  146,   he  speaks  as   if  the    compound 

doubt  that  C.  adami  had  been  sold  to  fruit  consisted  in  part  of  a  lemon,  but 

the  purchaser,  who  was  not  a  botanist,  this  apparently  was  a  mistake, 
in  the  place  of  C.  purpureus.     I  have 


418  GRAFT-HYBKIDS.  Chap.  XI. 

or  segregated  in  various  ways.  This  tree  can  be  propagated  by 
cuttings,  and  retains  its  diversified  character.  The  so-called  tri- 
facial orange  of  Alexandria  and  Smyrna  ^^'^  resembles  in  its  general 
nature  the  bizzarria,  and  differs  only  in  the  orange  being  of  the 
sweet  kind ;  this  and  the  citron  are  blended  togetiier  in  the  same 
fruit,  or  are  separately  produced  on  the  same  tree;  nothing  is 
known  of  its  origin.  In  regard  to  the  bizzarria,  many  authors 
believe  that  it  is  a  graft-hybrid ;  Gallesio,  on  the  other  hand,  thinks 
that  it  is  an  ordinary  hybrid,  with  the  habit  of  partially  revert- 
ing by  buds  to  the  two  parent-forms ;  and  we  have  seen  that  the 
species  in  this  genus  often  cross  spontaneously. 

It  is  notorious  that  when  the  variegated  Jessamine  is  budded  on 
the  common  kind,  the  stock  sometimes  produces  buds  bearing 
variegated  leaves :  Mr.  Kivers,  as  he  informs  me,  has  seen  instances 
of  this.  The  same  thing  occurs  with  the  Oleander.^'^^  Mr.  Eivers, 
on  the  authority  of  a  trustworthy  friend,  states  that  some  buds  of 
a  golden- variegated  ash,  which  were  inserted  into  common  ashes, 
all  died  except  one;  but  the  ash-stocks  were  affected,^"^  and  pro- 
duced, both  above  and  below  the  points  of  insertion  of  the  plates 
of  bark  bearing  the  dead  buds,  shoots  which  bore  variegated  leaves. 
Mr.  J.  Anderson  Henry  has  communicated  to  me  a  nearly  similar 
case  :  Mr.  Brown,  of  Perth,  observed  many  years  ago,  in  a  Highland 
glen,  an  ash-tree  with  yellow  leaves ;  and  buds  taken  from  this  tree 
were  inserted  into  common  ashes,  which  in  consequence  were  affected, 
and  produced  the  Blotched  Breadalhane  Ash.  This  variety  has  been 
propagated,  and  has  preserved  its  character  during  the  last  fifty 
years.  Weeping  ashes,  also,  were  budded  on  the  affected  stocks, 
and  became  similarly  variegated.  It  has  been  repeatedly  proved 
that  several  species  of  Abutilon,  on  which  the  variegated  A.  thumpsoirii 
has  been  grafted,  become  variegated.^°* 

Many  authors  consider  variegation  as  the  result  of  disease ;  and  the 
foregoing  cases  may  be  looked  at  as  the  direct  result  of  the  inoculation 
of  a  disease  or  some  weakness.  This  has  been  almost  proved  to  be 
the  case  by  Morren  in  the  excellent  paper  just  referred  to,  who  shows 
that  even  a  leaf  inserted  by  its  footstalk  into  the  bark  of  the  stock 
is  sufficient  to  communicate  variegation  to  it,  though  the  leaf 
soon  perishes.  Even  fully  formed  leaves  on  the  stock  of  Abuti- 
lon are  sometimes  affected  by  the  graft  and  become  variegated. 
Variegation  is  much  influenced,  as  we  shall  hereafter  see,  by  the 
nature  of  the  soil  in  which  the  plants  are  grown ;  and  it  does  not 


1"  'Gard.  Chron.,'    1855,    p.  628.  199. 

See  also  Prof.  Caspary,  in  'Transact.  "■*  Mcrren,  '  Bull,  de  I'Acad.  R.  des 

ITort.  Congress  of  Amsterdam,'  1865.  Sciences    de    Belgique,'     2de     series, 

''02  Gartner  ('  Bastarderzeugung,'  s.  tom.  xxviii.,  1869,  p.  434.     Also  Mag- 

C'tll)  gives  manv  references   on   this  nus,     'Gesellschaft     iiaturforschender 

subject.                '  Freunde,  Berlin,'   Feb.    21,   1871,    p. 

^03  A  nearly    similar   account   was  13;  ibid.,  June  21,  1870,  and  Oct.  17, 

given   by   Brabley.   in    1724,   in    his  1871.     Also   '  Bot.  Zeitung,'  Feb.  24, 

'  T/eatise   on    Husbandry,'  vol.   i.    p.  1871. 


Chap.  XI.  GRAFT-HYBRIDS.  419 

eeem  improbable  that  whatever  change  in  the  sap  or  tissues  certain 
Boils  induce,  whether  or  not  called  a  disease,  might  spread  from  the 
inserted  piece  of  bark  to  the  stock.  But  a  change  of  this  kind 
cannot  be  considered  to  be  of  the  nature  of  a  graft-hybrid. 

There  is  a  variety  of  the  hazel  with  dark-purple  leaves,  like  those 
of  the  copper-beech :  no  one  has  attributed  this  colour  to  disease, 
and  it  a^Dparently  is  only  an  exaggeration  of  a  tint  which  may  often 
be  seen  on  the  leaves  of  the  common  hazel.  When  this  variety  is 
grafted  on  the  common  hazel/^^  it  sometimes  colours,  as  has  been, 
asserted,  the  leaves  below  the  graft ;  although  negative  evidence  is 
not  of  much  value,  I  may  add  that  Mr.  Rivers,  who  has  possessed 
hundreds  of  such  grafted  trees,  has  never  seen  an  instance. 

Gartner ^°^  quotes  two  separate  accounts  of  branches  of  dark  and 
white-fruited  vines  which  had  been  united  in  various  ways,  such 
as  being  split  longitudinally,  and  then  joined,  &c. ;  and  these 
branches  produced  distinct  bunches  of  grapes  of  the  two  colours, 
and  other  bunches  with  berries,  either  striped,  or  of  an  intermediate 
and  new  tint.  Even  the  leaves  in  one  case  were  variegated.  These 
facts  are  the  more  remarkable  because  Andrew  Knight  never  suc- 
ceeded in  raising  variegated  grapes  by  fertilising  white  kinds  by 
pollen  of  dark  kinds ;  though,  as  we  have  seen,  he  obtained  seed- 
lings with  variegated  fruits  and  leaves,  by  fertilising  a  white  variety 
by  the  already  variegated  dark  Aleppo  grape.  Gartner  attributes 
the  above-quoted  cases  merely  to  bud- variation ;  but  it  is  a  strange 
coincidence  that  the  branches  which  had  been  grafted  in  a  peculiar 
manner  should  alone  thus  have  varied ;  and  H.  Adorne  d<^  Tscharner 
positively  asserts  that  he  produced  the  described  result  more  than 
once,  and  could  do  so  at  will,  by  splitting  and  uniting  the  branches 
in  the  manner  described  by  him. 

I  should  not  have  quoted  the  following  case  had  not  the  author 
of '  Des  Jacinthes '  ^°^  impressed  me  with  the  belief  not  only  of  his 
extensive  knowledge,  but  of  his  truthfulness :  he  says  that  bulbs  of 
blue  and  red  hyacinths  may  be  cut  in  two,  and  that  they  will  grow 
together  and  throw  up  a  united  stem  (and  this  I  have  myself  seen) 
with  flowers  of  the  tw^o  colours  on  the  opposite  sides.  But  the 
remarkable  point  is,  that  flowers  are  sometimes  produced  with  the 
two  colours  blended  together,  which  makes  the  case  closely  analogous 
with  that  of  the  blended  colours  of  the  grapes  on  the  united  vine 
branches. 

In  the  case  of  roses  it  is  supposed  that  several  graft-hybrids  have 
been  formed,  but  there  is  much  doubt  about  these  cases,  owing  to 
the  frequency  of  ordinary  bud-variations.  The  most  trustworthy 
instance  known  to  me  is  one,  recorded  by  Mr.  Poynter,^^^  who 
assures  me  in  a  letter  of  the  entire  accuracy  of  the  statement.  Bo!<a 
devoniensis  had   been  budded  some  years  previously  on  a  white 


"*  Loudon's    'Arborptnm,*  vol.  iv.  ^"^  Amsterdam,   1768,  p.  124. 

p.  2595.  "«  'Gavd.  Chron.,'    1860,  p.   672, 

'"*  '  Bastarderzeugung,'  s.  619.  with  a  woodcut. 


420  GRAFT-HYBRIDS.  Chap.  XI. 

Bankslan  rose;  and  from  tlie  much  enlarged  pomt  of  junction, 
whence  the  Devoniensis  and  Banksian  still  continued  to  grow,  a 
third  branch  issued,  which  was  neither  pure  Banksian  nor  pure 
Devoniensis,  but  partook  of  the  character  of  both;  the  flowers 
resembled,  but  were  superior  in  character  to  those  of  the  yariety 
called  Laiwirque  (one  of  the  Noisettes),  while  the  shoots  were  similar 
in  their  manner  of  growth  to  those  of  the  Banksian  rose,  with  the 
exception  that  the  longer  and  more  robust  shoots  were  furnished 
with  prickles.  This  rose  was  exhibited  before  the  Floral  Committee 
of  the  Horticultural  Society  of  London.  Dr.  Lindley  examined  it 
and  coacluded  that  it  had  certainly  been  produced  by  the  mingling 
of  R.  hunksice  with  some  rose  like  B.  devoniensis,  "for  while  it  was 
very  greatly  increased  in  vigour  and  in  size  of  all  the  parts,  the 
leaves  were  half-way  between  a  Banksian  and  Tea-scented  rose." 
It  appears  that  rose-growers  were  previously  aware  that  the  Banksian 
rose  sometimes  affects  other  roses.  As  Mr.  Poynter's  new  variety  is 
intermediate  in  its  fruit  and  foliage  between  the  stock  and  scion, 
and  as  it  arose  from  the  point  of  junction  between  the  two,  it  is  very 
improbable  that  it  owes  its  origin  to  mere  bud-variation,  indepen- 
dently of  the  mutual  influence  of  the  stock  and  scion. 

Lastly,  with  respect  to  potatoes.  Mr.  R.  Trail  stated  in  1867 
before  the  Botanical  Society  of  Edinburgh  (and  has  since  given  me 
fuller  information),  that  several  years  ago  he  cut  about  sixty  blue 
and  white  potatoes  into  halves  through  the  eyes  or  buds,  and  then 
carefully  joined  them,  destroying  at  the  same  time  the  other  eyes. 
Some  of  these  united  tubers  produced  white,  and  others  blue  tubers ; 
some,  however,  produced  tubers  partly  white  and  partly  blue; 
and  the  tubers  from  about  four  or  five  were  regularly  mottled  with 
the  two  colours.  In  these  latter  cases  we  may  conclude  that  a  stem 
had  been  formed  by  the  union  of  the  bisected  buds,  that  is,  by  graft- 
hybridisation. 

In  the  'Botanische  Zeitung'  (May  16, 1868),  Professor  Hildebrand 
gives  an  account  with  a  coloured  figure,  of  his  experiments  on  two 
varieties  which  were  found  during  the  same  season  to  be  constant 
in  character,  namely,  a  somewhat  elongated  rough-skinned  red  potato 
and  a  rounded  smooth  white  one.  He  inserted  buds  reciprocally  into 
both  kinds,  destroying  the  other  buds.  He  thus  raised  two  plants, 
and  each  of  these  produced  a  tuber  intermediate  in  character 
between  the  two  parent-forms.  That  from  the  red  bud  grafted 
into  the  white  tuber,  was  at  one  end  red  and  rough,  as  the  whole 
tuber  ought  to  have  been  if  not  affected ;  in  the  middle  it  was 
smooth  with  red  stripes,  and  at  the  other  end  smooth  and  altogetlier 
white  like  that  of  the  stock. 

Mjc.  Taylor,  who  had  received  several  accounts  of  potatoes  having 
been  grafted  by  wedge-shaped  pieces  of  one  variety  inserted  into 
another,  though  sceptical  on  the  subject,  made  twenty-four  experi- 
ments which  he  described  in  detail  before  the  Horticultural  Society .^'''^ 


»<^^  See  '  Gard.  Chron.,'  1869,  p.  220. 


Chap.  XI.  GRAFT-HYBRIDS.  421 

He  thus  raised  many  new  varieties,  some  like  the  graft  or  like  the 
stock'  others  having  an  intermediate  character.  Several  persons 
witnerised  the  digging  up  of  the  tubers  from  these  graft-hybrids ; 
and  one  of  them,  Mr.  Jameson,  a  large  dealer  in  potatoes,  writes 
tlius, ''  They  were  such  a  mixed  lot,  as  I  have  never  before  or  since 
"  seen.  They  were  of  all  colours  and  shapes,  some  very  ugly  and 
"  some  very  handsome."  Another  witness  says  "  some  were  round, 
"  some  kidney,  pink-eyed  kidney,  piebald,  and  mottled  red  and 
"  purple,  of  all  shapes  and  sizes."  Some  of  these  varieties  have 
lieen  found  valuable,  and  have  been  extensively  proj^agated. 
Mr.  Jameson  took  away  a  large  piebald  potato  which  he  cut  into 
tive  sets  and  propagated ;  these  yielded  round,  white,  red,  and  pie- 
bald potatoes. 

Mr.  Fitzpatrick  followed  a  different  plan;'^°  be  grafted  together 
not  the  tubers  but  the  young  stems  of  varieties  producing  black, 
white,  and  red  potatoes.  The  tubers  borne  by  three  of  these  twin 
or  united  plants  were  coloured  in  an  extraordinary  manner;  one 
was  almost  exactly  half  black  and  half  white,  so  that  some  persons 
on  seeing  it  thought  that  two  potatoes  had  been  divided  and  re- 
joined; other  tubers  were  half  red  and  half  white,  or  curiously 
mottled  with  red  and  white,  or  with  red  and  black,  according 
to  the  colours  of  the  graft  and  stock. 

The  testimony  of  Mr.  Fenn  is  of  much  value,  as  he  is  "a  well 
known  potato-grower"  who  has  raised  many  new  varieties  by  crossing 
different  kinds  in  the  ordinary  manner.  He  considers  it "  demon- 
strated" that  new,  intermediate  varieties  can  be  produced  by 
grafting  the  tubers,  though  he  doubts  whether  such  will  prove 
valuable.^^^  He  made  many  trials  and  laid  the  results,  exhibiting 
specimens,  before  the  Horticultural  Society.  Not  only  were  the 
tubers  affected,  some  being  smooth  and  white  at  one  end,  and 
rough  and  red  at  the  other,  but  the  stems  and  leaves  were  modified 
in  their  manner  of  growth,  colour  and  precocity.  Some  of  these 
graft-hybrids  after  being  propagated  for  three  years  still  showed  in 
their  haulms  their  new  character,  diiferent  from  that  of  the  kind 
from  which  the  eyes  had  been  taken.  Mr.  Fenn  gave  twelve  of  the 
tubers  of  the  third  generation  to  Mr.  Alex.  Dean,  who  grew  them, 
and  was  thus  converted  into  a  believer  in  graft-bybridisation, 
having  previously  been  a  complete  sceptic.  For  comparison  he 
planted  the  pure  parent-forms  alongside  the  twelve  tubers;  and 
found  that  many  of  the  plants  from  the  latter  ^^^  were  intermediate 
between  the  two  parent-forms  in  precocity,  in  the  tallness,  up- 
rightness, jointing,  and  robustness  of  the  stems,  and  in  the  size  and 
colour  of  the  leaves. 

Another  experimentalist,  Mr.  Eintoul,  gTafted  no  less  than  fifty-nine 
tn])ers,  which  differed  in  shape  (some  being  kidneys)  in  smoothness 


^'"  *  Gard.  Chron.,' 1869,  p.  335.  hesion    of  the    united    wedges.      Sm 

'"  '  Gard.  Chron.,'  1869,  p.  1018,  with       also  ib^d.,  1870,  jip.  1277,  1283. 
remarks  by    Dr.  Masters   on  the   ad-  "^  <  Qard.  Chrjn.,'  1871,  p.  837. 


422  GRAFT-HYBRIDS.  Chap.  XL 

and  colour,"^  and  many  of  the  plants  thus  raised  "  were  intermediate 
"  in  the  tubers  as  well  as  in  the  haulms."  He  describes  the  more 
striking  cases. 

In  1871  I  receiYed  a  letter  tromi  Mr.  Merrick,  of  Boston,  U.S.A., 
who  states  that,  "  Mr.  Fearing  Burr,  a  very  careful  exjierimenter  and 
"  author  of  a  much  valued  book,  '  The  Garden  Vegetables  cf 
•'  America,'  has  succeeded  in  producing  distinctly  mottled  and 
"  most  curious  j)otatoes — evidently  graft-hybrids,  by  inserting  eyes 
"  from  blue  or  red  potatoes  into  the  substance  of  white  ones,  after 
"  removing  the  eyes  of  the  latter.  I  have  seen  the  potatoes,  and 
"  they  are  very  curious." 

We  will  now  turn  to  the  experiments  made  in  Germany,  since 
the  publication  of  Prof.  Hildebrand's  paper.  Herr  Magnus  relates"'* 
the  results  of  numerous  trials  made  by  Herren  Eeuter  and  Linde- 
muth,  both  attached  to  the  Koyal  Gardens  of  Berlin.  They  inserted 
the  eyes  of  red  potatoes  into  white  ones,  and  vice  versa.  Many 
different  forms  partaking  of  the  characters  of  the  inserted  bud  and 
of  the  stock  were  thus  obtained;  for  instance,  some  of  the  tubers 
were  white  with  red  eyes. 

Herr  Magnus  also  exhibited  in  the  following  year  before  the  same 
Society  (Nov.  19,  1872),  the  produce  of  grafts  between  black,  white, 
and  red  potatoes,  made  by  Dr.  Neubert.  These  were  made  by 
uniting  not  the  tubers  but  the  young  stems,  as  was  done  by  Mr. 
Fitzpatrick.  The  result  was  remarkable,  inasmuch  as  all  the 
tubers  thus  produced  were  intermediate  in  character,  though  in  a 
variable  degree.  Those  between  the  black  and  the  white  or  the  red 
were  the  most  striking  in  appearance.  Some  from  between  the 
white  and  red  had  one  half  of  one  colour  and  the  other  half  of  the 
other  colour. 

At  the  next  meeting  of  the  society  Herr  Magnus  communicated 
the  results  of  Dr.  Heimann's  experiments  in  grafting  together  the 
tubers  of  red  Saxon,  blue,  and  elongated  white  potatoes.  The  eyes 
were  removed  by  a  cylindrical  instrument,  and  inserted  into  corre- 
sponding holes  in  other  varieties.  The  plants  thus  produced  yielded 
a  great  number  of  tubers,  which  were  intermediate  between  the  two 
parent-forms  in  shape,  and  in  the  colour  both  of  the  flesh  and  skin. 

Herr  Eeuter  experimented,^^^  by  inserting  wedges  of  the  elongated 
White  Mexican  potato  into  a  Black  Kidney  potato.  Both  sorts  are 
known  to  be  very  constant,  and  differ  much  not  only  in  form  and 
colour,  but  in  the  eyes  of  the  Black  Kidney  being  deeply  sunk, 
whereas  those  of  the  White  Mexican  are  superficial  and  of  a 
different  shape.  The  tubers  produced  by  these  hybrids  were 
intermediate  in  colour  and  form;  and  some  which  resembled  in 
form  the  graft,  i.e.  the  Mexican,  had  eyes  deeply  sunk  and  of  the 
same  shape  as  in  the  stock  or  Black  Kidney. 


"'  '  Gard.  Chron.,'  1870,  p.  1506.         Berlin,'  Oct.  17,  1871. 
'i4<Sitzungsbe-ichte     der     Gesell-  "Mbid.,  Nov.  17,  1874.     6'te  also 

schaft  naturforschender    Freunde  zu       excellent  remarks  by  Herr  Magnus. 


Chap.  XL  GRAFT-HYBRIDS.  423 

Any  one  who  will  attentively  consider  the  abstract  nou 
given,  of  the  experiments  made  by  many  observers  in  several 
countries,  will,  I  think,  be  convinced  that  by  grafting  two 
varieties  of  the  potato  together  in  various  ways,  hybridised 
plants  can  be  produced.  It  should  be  observed  that  several 
of  the  experimentalists  are  scientific  horticulturi&ts,  and 
some  of  them  potato-growers  on  a  large  scale,  who,  1  hough 
beforehand  sceptical,  have  been  fully  convinced  of  the  possi- 
bility, even  of  the  ease,  of  making  graft-hybrids.  The  only 
way  of  escaping  from  this  conclusion  is  to  attribute  all  the 
many  recorded  cases  to  simj)le  bud- variation.  Undoubtedly 
the  potato,  as  we  have  seen  in  this  chapter,  does  some- 
times, though  not  often,  vary  by  buds;  but  it  should  be 
especially  noted  that  it  is  experienced  potato-growers,  whose 
business  it  is  to  look  out  for  new  varieties,  who  have  exj^ressed 
unbounded  astonishment  at  the  number  of  new  forms  produced 
by  graft-hybridisation.  It  may  be  argued  that  it  is  merely 
the  operation  of  grafting,  and  not  the  union  of  two  kinds, 
which  causes  so  extraordinary  an  amount  of  bud- variation  ; 
but  this  objection  is  at  once  answered  by  the  fact  that  potatoes 
are  habitually  propagated  by  the  tubers  being  cut  into  pieces, 
and  the  sole  difference  in  the  cas^  of  graft-hybrids  is  that 
either  a  half  or  a  smaller  segment  or  a  cylinder  is  placed  in 
close  opposition  with  the  tissue  of  another  variety.  Moreover, 
in  two  cases,  the  young  stems  were  grafted  together,  and  the 
plants  thus  united  yielded  the  same  results  as  when  the  tubers 
were  united.  It  is  an  argument  of  the  greatest  weight  that 
when  varieties  are  produced  by  simple  bud- variation,  they 
frequently  present  quite  new  characters  ;  whereas  in  all  the 
numerous  cases  above  given,  as  Herr  Magnus  likewise  insists, 
the  graft-hybrids  are  intermediate  in  character  between  the 
two  forms  employed.  That  such  a  result  should  follow  if  the 
one  kind  did  not  affect  the  other  is  incredible. 

Characters  of  all  kinds  are  affected  by  graft  hybridisation, 
in  whatever  way  the  grafting  may  Lave  been  effected.  The 
plants  thus  raised  jaeld  tul)ers  which  ^^artake  of  the  widely 
different  colours,  form,  state  of  surface,  position  and  shape 
of  the  eye  of  the  parents  ;  and  according  to  ^^vo  careful  ob- 
servers they  are  also  intermediate  in  certain  constitutional 


424  GRAFT-HYBRIDS.  Chap.  XI. 

peculiarities.  But  we  should  bear  in  mind  that  in  all  the 
varieties  of  the  potato,  the  tubers  differ  much  more  than  any 
other  part. 

The  potato  affords  the  best  evidence  of  the  possibility  of 
the  formation  of  graft-hybrids,  but  we  must  not  overlook  the 
account  given  of  the  origin  of  the  famous  Cytisus  aclami  by 
M.  Adam,  who  had  no  conceivable  motive  for  deception,  and 
the  exactly  parallel  account  of  the  origin  of  the  Bizzarria 
orange,  namely  by  graft-hybridisation.  Nor  must  the  cases 
be  undervalued  in  which  different  varieties  or  species  of  vines, 
hyacinths  and  roses,  have  been  grafted  together,  and  have 
yielded  intermediate  forms.  It  is  evident  that  graft-hybrids 
can  be  made  much  more  easily  with  some  plants,  as  the 
potato,  than  with  others,  for  instance  our  common  fruit  trees  ; 
for  these  latter  have  been  grafted  by  the  million  during  many 
centuries,  and  though  the  graft  is  often  slightly  affected,  it 
is  very  doubtful  whether  this  may  not  be  accounted  for,  merely 
by  a  more  or  less  free  supply  of  nutriment.  Nevertheless, 
the  cases  above  given  seem  to  me  to  prove  that  under  certain 
unknown  conditions  graft-h^^bridisation  can  be  effected. 

Herr  Magnus  asserts  with  much  truth  that  graft-hybrids 
resemble  in  all  respects  seminal  hybrids,  including  their 
great  diversity  of  character.  'J'here  is,  however,  a  partial 
exception,  inasmuch  as  the  characters  of  the  two  parent  forms 
are  not  often  homogeneously  blended  together  in  graft-hybrids. 
They  much  more  commonly  appear  in  a  segregated  condition, 
—that  is,  in  segments  either  at  first,  or  subsequently 
through  reversion.  It  would  seem  that  the  reproductive 
elements  are  not  so  completely  blended  by  grafting  as  by 
sexual  generation.  But  segregation  of  this  kind  occurs  by  no 
means  rarely,  as  will  be  immediately  shown,  in  seminal 
hybrids.  Finally  it  must,  I  think,  be  admitted  that  we  learn 
from  the  foregoing  cases  a  highly  important  physiological  fact, 
namely,  that  the  elements  that  go  to  the  production  of  a  new 
being,  are  not  necessarily  formed  by  the  male  and  female  organs. 
They  are  present  in  the  cellular  tissue  in  such  a  state  that  they 
can  unite  without  the  aid  of  the  sexual  organs,  and  thus  give 
rise  to  a  new  bud  partaking  of  the  characters  of  the  two 
parent-forms. 


Chap.  XI.  SEGREGATION   OF   CHAEACTEES.  425 

On  tJie  segregation  of  the  parental  characters  in  seminal  liyhrids 
hy  hud-variation.  — I  will  now  give  a  sufficient  number  of 
cases  to  show  that  segregation  of  this  kind,  namely,  by  buds, 
ma}^  occur  in  ordinary  hybrids  raised  from  seed. 

Hybrids  were  raised  by  Gartner  between  Tropceolum  mini's  and 
majus^'^^  which  at  firsi;  produced  flowers  intermediate  in  size,  colour, 
and  structure  between  their  two  parents ;  but  later  in  the  season 
some  of  these  plants  produced  flowers  in  all  respects  like  those  of 
the  mother-form,  mingled  with  flowers  still  retaining  the  usual 
intermediate  condition.  A  hybrid  Cereus  between  (7.  speciosissimus 
and  fjliyJlanthus^^'^  plants  which  are  widely  different  in  appearance, 
produced  for  the  first  three  years  angular,  five-sided  stems,  and 
then  some  flat  stems  like  those  of  C.  phyllantlms.  Kolreuter  also 
gives  cases  of  hybrid  Lobelias  and  Verbascums,  which  at  first 
produced  flowers  of  one  colour,  and  later  in  the  season,  flowers  of  a 
different  colour.^^^  Naudin  ^^^  raised  forty  hybrids  from  Datura 
kevis  fertilised  by  D.  stramonium ;  and  three  of  these  hybrids 
produced  many  capsules,  of  which  a  half,  or  quarter,  or  lesser 
segment  was  smooth  and  of  small  size,  like  the  capsule  of  the  pure 
D.  Icevifi,  the  remaining  part  being  spinose  and  of  larger  size,  like 
the  capsule  of  the  pure  D.  stramonium :  from  one  of  these  com- 
posite capsules,  plants  perfectly  resembling  both  parent-forms  were 
raised. 

Turning  now  to  varieties.  A  seedling  apple,  conjectured  to  be  of 
crossed  parentage,  has  been  described  in  France,^-*^  which  bears 
fruit  with  one  half  larger  than  the  other,  of  a  red  colour,  acid  taste, 
and  peculiar  odour ;  the  other  side  being  greenish-yellow  and  very 
sweet :  it  is  said  scarcely  ever  to  include  perfectly  developed  seed. 
I  suppose  that  this  is  not  the  same  tree  as  that  which  Gaudichaud  ^^^ 
exhibited  before  the  French  institute,  bearing  on  the  same  branch 
two  distinct  kinds  of  apples,  one  a  reinette  rouge,  and  the  other  like  a 
reii/ette  canada  jaundtre :  this  double -bearing  variety  can  be  jDropa- 
gated  by  grafts,  and  continues  to  produce  both  kinds  ;  its  origin  is 
unknown.  The  Eev.  J.  D.  La  Touche  sent  me  a  coloured  drawing 
of  an  apple  which  he  brought  from  Canada,  of  which  half,  surround- 
ing and  including  the  whole  of  the  calyx  and  the  insertion  of  the 
foot-stalk,  is  green,  the  other  half  being  brown  and  of  the  nature 
of  the  pomme  grin  apple,  with  the  line  of  separation  between  the  two 


^*'  *  Bastarderzengung,'  3.549.     It  ^^^  *  Nouvelles   Archives    du    Mu- 

is,  however,  doubtful  whether  these  seum,'  torn.  i.  p.  49. 

plants  should  be  ranked  as  species  or  ^^*  L'Hermes,      Jan.      14,      1837, 

varieties.  quoted    in    Loudon's    '  Gard.    Mag.,' 

11^  Gartner,  ibid.,  s.  550.  vol.  xiii.  p.  230. 

*'^  *  Journal    de    Physique,'    torn.  *^'   '  Comptes  F.cndus,'  torn,  ixsiv,, 

Kxiri.,    1873,    p.    100.      'Act.   Acad.  1852,  p.  746. 
St.  Peiersburgh,'  1781,  part  i.  p.  249. 


426         SEGEEGATION  OF  CHARACTEKS.      Chap.  XI. 

halves  exactly  defined.  The  tree  was  a  grafted  one,  and  Mr.  Lsi 
Touche  thinks  that  the  branches  which  bore  this  curious  apple 
sprung  from  the  point  of  junction  of  the  graft  and  stock :  had  this 
fact  been  ascertained,  the  case  would  probably  have  come  into  tho 
class  of  graft-hybrids  already  given.  But  the  branch  may  have 
sprung  from  the  stock,  which  no  doubt  was  a  seedling. 

I'rof.  H.  Lecoq,  who  has  made  a  great  number  of  crossings 
l^etween  the  diiferently  coloured  varieties  of  Mirahilis  jalapa,^-^ 
finds  that  in  the  seedlings  the  colours  rarely  combine,  but  form 
distinct  stripes ;  or  half  the  flower  is  of  one  colour  and  half  of  a 
different  colour.  Some  varieties  regularly  bear  flowers  striped  with 
yellow,  white,  and  red ;  but  plants  of  such  varieties  occasionally 
produce  on  the  same  root  branches  with  uniformly  coloured  flovfers 
of  all  three  tints,  and  other  branches  with  half-and-half  coloured 
flowers,  and  others  with  marbled  flowers.  Gallesio^^^  crossed  recipro- 
cally white  and  red  carnations,  and  the  seedlings  were  striped ;  but 
some  of  the  striped  plants  also  bore  entirely  white  and  entirely  red 
flowers.  Some  of  these  plants  produced  one  year  red  flowers  alone, 
and  in  the  following  year  striped  flowers ;  or  conversely,  some  plants, 
after  having  borne  for  two  or  three  years  striped  flowers,  would 
revert  and  bear  exclusively  red  flowers.  It  may  be  worth  mention- 
ing that  I  fertilised  the  Purple  ISweet-pea  (Lathyrus  odorutus)  with 
pollen  from  the  light-coloured  Painted  Lady :  seedlings  raised  from 
the  same  pod  were  not  intermediate  in  character,  but  perfectly 
resembled  either  parent.  Later  in  the  summer,  the  plants  which 
had  at  first  borne  flowers  identical  with  those  of  the  Painted  Lady, 
produced  flowers  streaked  and  blotched  with  purple ;  showing  in 
these  darker  marks  a  tendency  to  reversion  to  the  mother-variety. 
Andrew  Knight  ^^^  fertilised  two  white  grapes  with  pollen  of  the 
Aleppo  grape,  which  is  darkly  variegated  both  in  its  leaves  and 
fruit.  The  result  was  that  the  young  seedlings  were  not  at  first 
variegated,  but  all  became  variegated  during  the  succeeding  sum- 
mer; besides  this,  many  produced  on  the  same  plant  bunches  of 
grapes  which  were  all  black,  or  all  white,  or  lead -coloured  striped 
with  white,  or  white  dotted  with  minute  black  stripes ;  and  grapes 
of  all  these  shades  could  frequently  be  found  on  the  same  foot- 
stalk. 

I  will  append  a  very  curious  case,  not  of  bud-variation,  but  of  two 
cohering  embryos,  different  in  character  and  contained  within  the 
same  seed.  A  distinguished  botanist,  Mr.  G.  H.  Thwaites,^^^  states 
that  a  seed  from  Fuchsia  coccinea  fertilised  by  F.fulgens,  contained 
two  embryos,  and  was  "  a  true  vegetable  twin."  The  two  plants  pro- 
duced from  the  two  embryos  were  "  extremely  different  in  appear- 
auce  and  character,"  though  both  resembled  other  hybrids  of  the 


122  '  Geograph.    Bot.   de  I'Europe,'  i^*  '  Transact.   Linn.  Soc.,'  vol.  ix, 

torn,  iii.,  1854,   p.  405;  and   '  De   la  p.  268. 
Fecondation,'  1862,  p.  302.  »25  «  Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hiifc., 

133  '  Tmite  du  Citrus,'  1811,  p.  45.  March,  1848 


Chap.  XL      DIRECT   ACTION   OF   THE   MALE   ELEMENT.        427 

same  parentage  produced  at  the  same  time.  These  twin  plants 
"  were  closely  coherent,  below  the  two  pairs  of  cotyledon-leaves, 
"  into  a  single  cylindrical  stem,  so  that  they  had  subsequently  the 
"  appearance  of  being  branches  on  one  trunk."  Had  the  two 
united  stems  grown  up  to  their  full  height,  instead  of  dying,  a 
curiously  mixed  hybrid  would  have  been  produced.  A  mongrel 
melon  described  by  Sageret^^^  may  perhaps  have  thus  originated ;  for 
the  two  main  branches,  which  arose  from  two  cotyledon-buds,  pro- 
duced very  different  fruit, — on  the  one  branch  like  that  of  the  paternal 
variety,  and  on  the  other  branch  like  to  a  certain  extent  that  of  the 
maternal  variety,  the  melon  of  China. 

In  most  of  these  cases  of  crossed  varieties,  and  in  some  of 
th.e  cases  of  crossed  species,  the  colours  proper  to  both  parents 
appeared  in  the  seedlings,  as  soon  as  they  first  flowered,  in  the 
form  of  stripes  or  larger  segments,  or  as  whole  flowers  or  fruit 
of  different  kinds  borne  on  the  same  plant ;  and  in  this  case 
the  appearance  of  the  two  colours  cannot  strictly  be  said  to  be 
due  to  reversion,  but  to  some  incapacity  of  fusion.  When, 
however,  the  later  flowers  or  fruit  produced  during  the  same 
season,  or  during  a  succeeding  year  or  generation,  become 
striped  or  half-and-half,  &c.,  the  segregation  of  the  two  colours 
is  strictly  a  case  of  reversion  by  bud-variation.  Whether  all 
the  many  recorded  cases  of  striped  flowers  and  fruit  are  duo 
to  previous  hybridisation  and  reversion  is  by  no  means  (jlear, 
for  instance  with  peaches  and  nectarines,  paoss-roses,  &c.  In 
a  future  chapter  I  shall  show  that,  with  animals  of  crossed 
parentage,  the  same  individual  has  been  known  to  change  its 
character  during  growth,  and  to  revert  to  one  of  its  parents 
which  it  did  not  at  first  resemble.  Finally,  from  the  various 
facts  now  given,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  same  individual 
plant,  whether  a  h3^brid  or  a  mongrel,  sometimes  returns  in 
its  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit,  either  wholly  or  by  segments,  to 
both  parent-forms. 

On  the  direct  or  immediate  action  of  the  male  element  on  the 
mother  form, — Another  remarkable  class  of  facts  must  be  here 
considered,  fii'stly,  because  they  have  a  high  physiological  im- 
portance, and  secondly,  because  they  have  been  supposed  to 
account  for  some  cases  of  bud- variation.    I  refer  to  the  dii^ect 

"8 '  Pomologie  Physiolog.,'  1830,  p.  126. 


423  ON   THE   DIKECT   ACTION   OF   THE  Chap.  XI 

action  of  the  male  element,  not  in  tlie  ordinary  way  on  the 
ovules,  but  on  certain  parts  of  the  female  plant,  or  in  case  of 
animals  on  the  subsequent  progeny  of  the  female  by  a  second 
male.  I  may  premise  that  with  plants  the  ovarium  and  the 
coats  of  the  ovules  are  obviously  parts  of  the  female,  and  it 
could  not  have  been  anticipated  that  they  would  have  been 
affected  by  the  pollen  of  a  foreign  variety  or  species,  although 
the  development  of  the  embryo,  inside  the  embryonic  sack^ 
inside  the  ovule  and  ovarium,  of  course,  depends  on  the  male 
element. 

Even  as  long  ago  as  1729  it  was  observed  ^^'^  that  white  and  blue 
varieties  of  the  Pea,  when  planted  near  each  other,  mutaally  crossed, 
no  doubt  through  the  agency  of  bees,  and  in  the  fiutumn  blue  and 
white  peas  were  found  within  the  same  pods.  Wiegmann  made  an 
exactly  similar  observation  in  the  present  century.  The  same 
result  has  followed  several  times  when  a  variety  with  peas  of  one 
colour  has  been  artificially  crossed  by  a  differently- coloured  variety .^^^ 
These  statements  led  Gartner,  who  was  highly'  sceptical  on  the 
subject,  carefully  to  try  a  long  series  of  experiments  :  he  selected  the 
most  constant  varieties,  and  the  result  conclusively  showed  that  the 
colour  of  the  skin  of  the  pea  is  modified  when  pollen  of  a  differently 
coloured  variety  is  used.  This  conclusion  has  since  been  confirmed 
by  experiments  made  by  the  Eev.  J.  M.  Berkeley .^^^ 

Mr.  Laxton  of  Stamford,  whilst  making  experiments  on  peas  for  the 
express  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  influence  of  foreign  pollen  on 
the  mother-plant,  has  recently  ^^°  observed  an  important  additional 
fact.  He  fertilised  the  Tall  Sugar-pea,  which  bears  very  thin  green 
pods,  becoming  brownish-white  when  dry,  with  pollen  of  the 
Purple-podded  pea,  which,  as  its  name  expresses,  has  dark- purple 
pods  with  very  thick  skin,  becoming  pale  reddish  purple  when  dry. 
Mr.  Laxton  has  cultivated  the  tall  sugar-pea  during  twenty  years, 
and  has  never  seen  or  heard  of  it  producing  a  purple  pod :  neverthe- 
less, a  flower  fertilised  by  pollen  from  the  purple- pod  yielded  a  pod 
clouded  with  purplish-red  which  Mr.  Laxton  kindly  gave  to  me. 
A  space  of  about  two  inches  in  length  towards  the  extremity  of  the 
pod,  and  a  smaller  space  near  the  stalk,  were  thus  coloured.  On 
comparing  the  colour  with  that  of  the  purple  pod,  both  pods  having 
been  first  dried  and  then  soaked  in  water,  it  was  found  to  be  identi- 
cally the  same ;  and  in  both  the  colour  was  confined  to  the  cells  lying 
imniediately  beneath  the  outer  skin  of  the  pod.     The  valves  of  the 


'-'  'Philosophical    Transact.,'  vol.  '  Bastarderzeuguug,'  1849,  ss.  81  and 

x'liii.,  1744-45,  p.  525.  499. 

»28  ilr.   Goss,    in  'Transact.  Hort.  129  <Gari.  Chron.,*  1854,  p.  404. 

Soi.;    Tol  y.  p.  234  :     and  Gartner,  ^">  Ibid.,  1866,  p.  900. 


ChaP.  XI.        MALE  ELEMENT  ON  THE  MOTIIER-FGEM.  429 

crossed  pod  were  also  decidedly  thicker  and  stronger  than  those  of 
the  pods  of  the  mother-plant,  but  this  may  possibly  have  been  an 
accidental  circumstance,  for  I  know  not  how  far  their  thickness  is  a 
variable  character  in  the  Tall  Sugar-pea. 

The  peas  of  the  Tall  Sugar-pea,  when  dry,  are  pale  greenish- 
brown,  thickly  covered  with  dots  of  dark  purple  so  minute  as  to  be 
visible  only  through  a  lens,  and  Mr.  Laxton  has  never  seen  or  hec.rd 
of  this  variety  producing  a  purple  pea ;  but  in  the  crossed  pod  one  of 
the  peas  was  of  a  uniform  beautiful  violet-purple  tint,  and  a  second 
was  irregularly  clouded  with  pale  purple.  The  colour  lies  in  the 
outer  of  the  two  coats  which  surround  the  pea.  As  the  peas  of  the 
purple-podded  variety  when  dry  are  of  a  pale  greenish-buif,  it  would 
at  first  appeal  that  this  remai-kable  change  of  colour  in  the  peas  in 
the  crossed  pod  could  not  have  been  caused  by  the  direct  action  of 
the  pollen  of  the  purple-pod :  but  when  we  bear  in  mind  that  this 
latter  variety  has  purple  flowers,  purple  marks  on  its  stipules,  and 
purple  pods;  and  that  the  Tall  Sugar-pea  likewise  has  purple  flowers 
and  stipules,  and  microscopically  minute  purple  dots  on  the  peas, 
we  can  hardly  doubt  that  the  tendency  to  the  iDroduction  of  jDurple 
in  both  parents  has  in  combination  modified  the  colour  of  the  peas 
in  the  crossed  pod.  After  having  examined  these  specimens,  1 
crossed  the  same  two  varieties,  and  the  peas  in  one  pod  but  not  the 
pods  themselves,  were  clouded  and  tinted  with  ]3urplish-red  in  a 
much  more  conspicuous  manner  than  the  peas  in  the  uncrossed 
pods  produced  at  the  same  time  by  the  same  plants.  I  may  notice 
as  a  caution  that  Mr.  Laxton  sent  me  various  other  crossed  peas 
slightly,  or  even  greatly,  modified  in  colour;  but  the  change  in 
these  cases  was  due,  as  had  been  suspected  by  Mr.  Laxton,  to  the 
altered  colour  of  the  cotyledons,  seen  through  the  transparent  coats 
of  the  peas ;  and  as  the  cotyledons  are  parts  of  the  embryo,  these 
cases  are  not  in  any  way  remarkable. 

Turning  now  to  the  genus  Matthiola.  The  pollen  of  one  kind  of 
stock  sometimes  affects  the  colour  of  the  seeds  of  another  kind,  used 
as  the  mother-plant.  I  give  the  following  case  the  more  readily, 
as  Gartner  doubted  similar  statements  previously  made  with  respect 
to  the  stock  by  other  observers.  A  well-known  horticulturist, 
Major  Trevor  Clarke,  informs  me^^^  that  the  seeds  of  the  large  red- 
flowered  hiennial  stock,  Matthiola  annua  {Cocaixleau  of  the^French) 
are  light  brown,  and  those  of  the  purple  branching  Queen  stock 
{M.  inciina)  are  violet-black;  and  he  found  that,  when  flowers  of 
the  red  stock  were  fertilised  by  pollen  from  the  purple  stock,  they 
yielded  about  fifty  per  cent,  of  black  seeds.  He  sent  me  four  pods 
from  a  red  flowered  plant,  two  of  which  had  been  fertilised  by  their 
own  pollen,  and  they  included  pale  brown  seed ;  a,nd  two  "which 
had  been  crossed  by  pollen  from  the  purple  kind,  and  they  included 
seeds   all  deeply  tinged  with  black.      These  latter  seeds  yielded 


"*  See   also   a    paper   by  this  ob-       Hort.  and  Bot.    Congress  of  Loudou, 
eervor,  read  before  the  International        18G6. 


430  ON   THE   DIEECT   ACTION   OF   THE  Chip.  XL 

purple-flowered  plants  like  their  father;  whilst  the  pale  browD 
Beeds  yielded  normal  red-flowered  plants ;  and  Major  Clarke,  by 
sowing  similar  seeds,  has  observed  on  a  greater  scale  the  same 
result.  The  evidence  in  tliis  case  of  the  direct  action  of  the  pollen 
of  one  species  on  the  colour  of  the  seeds  of  another  species  appears 
to  me  conclusive. 

Gallesio^^^  fertilised  the  flowers  of  an  orange  with  pollen  from  the 
lemon;  and  one  fruit  thus  produced  bore  a  longitudinal  stripe  of 
peel  having  the  colour,  flavour,  and  other  characters  of  the  lemon. 
Mr.  Anderson^^^  fertilised  a  green-fleshed  melon  with  pollen  from  a 
scarlet-fleshed  kind ;  in  two  of  the  fruits  '^  a  sensible  change  was 
perceptible :  and  four  other  fruits  were  somewhat  altered  both 
internally  and  externally."  The  seeds  of  the  two  first-mentioned 
fruits  produced  plants  partaking  of  the  good  properties  of  both 
parents.  In  the  United  States,  where  Cucurbitace^  are  largely 
cultivated,  it  is  the  popular  belief^^^  that  the  fruit  is  thus  directly 
affected  by  foreign  pollen ;  and  I  have  received  a  similar  statement 
with  respect  to  the  cucumber  in  England.  It  is  believed  that 
grapes  have  been  thus  affected  in  colour,  size,  and  shape  :  in  France 
a  pale-coloured  grape  had  its  juice  tinted  by  the  pollen  of  the  dark- 
coloured  Teinturier ;  in  Germany  a  variety  bore  berries  which  were 
affected  by  the  pollen  of  two  adjoining  kinds ;  some  of  the  berries 
being  only  partially  affected  or  mottled.^"^ 

As  long  ago  as  1751  ^"^^  it  was  observed  that,  when  differently- 
coloured  varieties  of  maize  grew  near  each  other,  they  mutually 
affected  each  other's  seeds,  and  this  is  now  a  popular  belief  in  the 
United  States.  Dr.  Savi  ^^'^  tried  the  experiment  with  care  :  he 
sowed  yellow  and  black-seeded  maize  together,  and  on  the  same  ear 
some  of  the  seeds  were  yellow,  some  black,  and  some  mottled,  the 
differently  coloured  seeds  being  arranged  irregularly  or  in  rows. 
Prof.  Hildebrand  has  repeated  the  experiment  ^^^  with  the  ])recaution 
of  ascertaining  that  the  mother- plant  was  true.  A  kind  bearing 
yellow  grains  was  fertilised  with  pollen  of  a  kind  having  brown 
grains,  and  two  ears  produced  yellow  grains  mingled  with  others  of 
a  dirty  violet  tint.  A  third  ear  had  only  yellow  grains,  but  one  side 
of  the  spindle  was  tinted  of  a  reddish-brown  ;  so  that  here  we  have 
the  important  fact  of  the  influence  of  the  foreign  pollen  extending 


"2  ' Traite  du  Citrus,*  p.  40.  quoted      in       Henfrey's     'Botanical 

133  i  Transact.    Hort.  Soc.,*  vol.  iii.  Gazette,'    vol.    i.  p.   277.     A  case  in 

p    318.     See  also  vol.  v.  p.  65.  England  has  recently  been  alluded  to 

"*  Prof.    Asa   Gray,  '  Proc.  Acad.  by  the  Rev.  J.  M.  Berkeley  before  the 

Sc  ,'  Boston,  vol.  iv.,  1860,  p.  21.     I  Hort.  Soc.  of  London, 
have  received  statements  to  the  same  ^^^  'Philosophical       Transactions,' 

effect  from  other  persons  in  the  United  vol.  xlvii.,  1751-52,  p.  206. 
States.  ^^^  Gallesio,  '  Teoria  della  Riprodu- 

135  p'or  the  French  case,  see  '  Journ.  zione.'  1816,  p.  95. 
Hort.  Soc.,' vol.  i.  new  series,  1866,  p.  ^^s  <  g^t.    Zeitung,'  May,  1868,  p 

50.      For   Germany,     ^e   M.    Jack,  326. 


Chap.  XI.   MALE  ELEMENT  ON  THE  MOTHER-FORM.     43 1 

to  the  axis.  Mr.  Arnold,  in  Canada,  yaried  the  experiment  in  uu 
interesting  manner :  "  a  female  flower  was  subjected  first  to  tbe 
"  action  of  pollen  from  a  yellow  variety,  and  then  to  that  from  a 
"  white  variety ;  the  result  was  an  ear,  each  grain  of  which  was 
"yellow  below  and  white  above." ^^^  With  other  plants  it  has 
occasionally  been  observed  that  the  crossed  offspring  showed  the 
influence  of  two  kinds  of  pollen,  but  in  this  case  the  two  kinds 
affected  the  mother-plant. 

Mr.  Sabine  states  ^^°  that  he  has  seen  the  form  of  the  nearly 
globular  seed-capsule  of  Amaryllis  vittatd  altered  by  the  application 
of  the  pollen  of  another  species,  of  which  the  capsule  has  gibbous 
angles.  With  an  allied  genus,  a  well-known  botanist,  Maximowicz, 
has  described  in  detail  the  striking  results  of  reciprocally  fertilising 
Liliura  hulhiferum  and  davuricum  with  each  other's  pollen.  Each 
species  i^roduced  fruit  not  like  its  own,  but  almost  identical  with 
that  of  the  pollen-bearing  species ;  but  from  an  accident  only  the 
fruit  of  the  latter  species  was  carefully  examined ;  the  seeds  were 
intermediate  in  the  development  of  their  wings.^'*^ 

Fritz  Miiller  fertilised  Cattleya  leopoldi  with  pollen  of  Epidendron 
cinnaharinum ;  and  the  capsules  contained  very  few  seeds ;  but  these 
presented  a  most  wonderful  appearance,  which,  from  the  description 
given,  two  botanists,  Hildebrand  and  Maximowicz,  attribute  to  the 
direct  action  of  the  pollen  of  the  Epidendron.^^^ 

Mr.  J.  Anderson  Henry  '^^  crossed  Ehododendron  dcdhousice  with 
the  pollen  of  B.  nuttallii,  which  is  one  of  the  largest-flowered  and 
noblest  species  of  the  genus.  The  largest  pod  jDroduced  by  the 
former  species,  when  fertilised  with  its  own  pollen,  measured  If  inch 
in  length  and  1 5  in  girth ;  whilst  three  of  the  pods  which  had  been 
fertilised  by  pollen  of  R.  nuttallii  measured  If  inch  in  length  and 
no  less  than  2  inches  in  girth.  Here  the  eifect  of  the  foreign  pollen 
was  apparently  confined  to  increasing  the  size  of  the  ovarium ;  but 
we  must  be  cautious  in  assuming,  as  the  following  case  shows,  that 
size  had  been  transferred  from  the  male  parent  to  the  capsule  of  the 
female  plant.  Mr.  Henry  fertilised  Arabis  hhpharophylla  with  pollen 
of  A.  soyeri,  and  the  pods  thus  produced,  of  which  he  was  so  kind 
as  to  send  me  detailed  measurements  and  sketches,  were  much 
larger  in  all  their  dimensions  than  those  naturally  produced  by 
either  the  male  or  female  parent-species.  In  a  future  chapter  Ave 
shall  see  that  the  organs  of  vegetation  in  hybrid  plants,  indepen- 


*^^  See  Dr.  J.  Stockton-Hough,   m  by  foreign  pollen,  but  as  it  does  not 

Amtrican  Naturalist,'  Jan.    1874,  p,  appear    that    the    mother-plant    was 

29.  artificially     fertilised,     1     have    not 

"*  'Transact     Hort.    Soc.,' vol.  v.  entered  into  details, 
p.  69.  1*2  'Bot.   Zeitung,'   Sept.  1868,  p. 

*■**  *  Bull,   de    I'Acad.    Imp.  de  St.  331.     For  Maximowicz's    judgment, 

Petersburg,'   torn.  xvii.   p.  275,  1872,  see  the  paper  last  referred  to. 
The  author  gives  references  to  those  ^^^  '  Journal  of  Hi.  rticuiture,'  Jan 

cases  in  the  Solanaceee  of  fruit  affected  20,  1863,  p.  46. 


432  ON   THE   DIRECT    ACTION   OF  THE  Chap.  XI 

dently  of  the  character  of  either  parent,  are  sometimes  developed 
to  a  monstrous  size;  and  the  increased  size  of  the  pods  in  the  fore- 
going cases  may  be  an  analogous  fact.  On  the  other  hand,  M.  de 
Saporta  informs  me  that  an  isolated  female  plant  of  Pistacia  vera  is 
very  apt  to  be  fertilised  by  the  pollen  of  neighbouring  plants  of 
F.  terebinfhus,  and  in  this  case  the  fruits  are  only  half  their  proper 
size,  which  he  attributes  to  the  influence  of  the  pollen  of  P. 

No  case  of  the  direct  action  of  the  pollen  of  one  variety  on  another 
is  better  authenticated  or  more  remarkable  than  that  of  the  common 
apple.  The  fruit  here  consists  of  the  lower  part  of  the  calyx  and  ot 
the  upper  part  of  the  tiower-peduncle^^*  in  a  metamorphosed  con- 
dition, so  that  the  effect  of  the  foreign  pollen  has  extended  even  be- 
yond the  limits  of  the  ovarium.  Cases  of  apples  thus  affected  were 
recorded  by  Bradley  in  the  early  part  of  the  last  century  ;  and  other 
cases  are  given  in  old  volumes  of  the  'Philosophical  Transactions  ;'^^^ 
in  one  of  these  a  Russeting  apple  and  an  adjoining  kind  mutually 
affected  each  other's  fruit ;  and  in  another  case  a  smooth  apple 
affected  a  rough-coated  kind.  Another  iu stance  has  been  given  ^^^ 
of  two  very  different  apple-trees  growing  close  to  each  other,  which 
bore  fruit  resembling  each  other,  but  only  on  the  adjoining  branches. 
It  is,  however,  almost  superfluous  to  adduce  these  or  other  cases, 
after  that  of  the  St.  Valery  apple,  the  flowers  which,  from  the  ab- 
ortion of  the  stamens,  do  not  produce  pollen,  but  are  fertilised  by 
the  girls  of  the  neighbourhood  with  pollen  of  many  kinds  ;  and  they 
bear  fruit,  "  differing  from  one  another  in  size,  flavour,  and  colour, 
but  resembling  in  character  the  hermaphrodite  kinds  by  which  they 
have  been  fertilised."^^'^ 

I  have  now  shown,  on  the  authority  of  several  excellent 
observers,  in  the  case  of  plants  belonging  to  widely  different 
orders,  that  the  pollen  of  one  species  or  variety,  when  applied 
to  the  female  of  a  distinct  form,  occasionall}'  causes  the  coats 
of  the  seeds,  the  ovarium  or  fruit,  including  even  the  calj^x: 
and  upper  part  of  the  peduncle  of  the  apple,  and  the  axis 
of  the  ear  in  maize,  to  be  modified.  Sometimes  the  whole 
ovarium  or  all  the  seeds  are  thus  affected ;  sometimes  only  a 

^^*  See    on    this    head    the    high  327.     Puvis  also  has  collected, '  De  la 

nnthority  of  Prof.  Decaisne,  in  a  paper  Degeneration,'    18S7,  p.    36)  several 

translated  in  '  Journ.  H  irt.  So;-.,'  vol,  other  instances  ;  but  it  is  not  in  a.l 

i-,  new  series,  1866,  p.  48.  cases  possible  to  distinguish  between 

'*^  Vol.    xliii.,    1744—45,    p.    525  ;  the  direct  action  of  foreign  pollen  and 

vol.  xlv.,  1747-48,  p.  602.  bud-variations. 

^^^  'Transact.  Hort.'Soc.,'  vol.    v.  '*'^  T.    de     Clermont-Tornerro,     in 

pp.    65    and     68.       See,    also.    Prof.  '  Mem.  de  la  So,,  Linn,  'e  Paris,'  toia 

Ilildebrand,  with  a  coloured    figure,  iii.,  1825,  p.  164. 
in  '  Bot.  Zcitung,'  May    15,   1&68,  p. 


Chap.  XI.       MALE  ELEMENT  ON  THE  MOTHER-FOEM.  433 

certain  number  of  the  seeds,  as  in  the  case  of  the  pea,  or  only 
a  part  of  the  ovarium,  as  with  the  striped  orange,  mottled 
grapes,  and  maize,  is  thus  affected.  It  must  not  be  supposed 
that  any  direct  or  immediate  effect  invariably  follows  the 
use  of  foreign  pollen :  this  is  far  from  being  the  case  ;  nor 
is  it  known  on  what  conditions  the  result  depends.  Mr. 
Knight  ^^'^  expressly  states  that  he  has  never  seen  the  fruit 
thus  affected,  though  he  crossed  thousands  of  apple  and  other 
fruit-trees. 

There  is  not  the  least  reason  to  believe  that  a  branch  which 
has  borne  seed  or  fruit  directly  modified  by  foreign  pollen  is 
itself  affected,  so  as  afterwards  to  produce  modified  buds ; 
such  an  occurrence,  from  the  temporary  connection  of  the 
flower  with  the  stem,  would  be  hardly  possible.  Hence,  but 
very  few,  if  any,  of  the  cases  of  bud- variation  in  the  fruit  of 
trees,  given  in  the  early  part  of  this  chapter  can  be  accounted 
for  by  the  action  of  foreign  pollen  ;  for  such  fruits  have 
commonly  been  propagated  by  budding  or  grafting.  It  is 
also  obvious  that  changes  of  colour  in  flowers,  which  neces- 
sarily supervene  long  before  they  are  ready  for  fertilisation, 
and  changes  in  the  shape  or  colour  of  leaves,  when  due  to  the 
appearance  of  modified  buds,  can  have  no  relation  to  the 
action  of  foreign  pollen. 

The  proofs  of  the  action  of  foreign  pollen  on  the  mother- 
plant  have  been  given  in  considerable  detail,  because  this 
action,  as  we  shall  see  in  a  future  chapter,  is  of  the  highest 
theoretical  importance,  and  because  it  is  in  itself  a  remarkable 
and  apparently  anomalous  circumstance.  That  it  is  remark- 
able under  a  physiological  point  of  view  is  clear,  for  the 
male  element  not  only  affects,  in  accordance  with  its  proper 
function,  the  germ,  but  at  the  same  time  various  parts  of  the 
mother-plant,  in  the  same  manner,  as  it  affects  the  same  part 
in  the  seminal  offspring  from  the  same  two  parents.  We  thus 
learn  that  an  ovule  is  not  indispensable  for  the  reception  of 
the  influence  of  the  male  element.  But  this  direct  action  of 
the  male  element  is  not  so  anomalous  as  it  at  first  apj)cars, 
for  it  comes  into  play  in  the  ordinary  fertilisation  of  many 

'**  '  Transact,  of  Hurt.  Soc.,'  vol.  v.  p.  fi8. 

29 


'1:34:  ON   THE   DIllECT   ACTION   OF   THE  Chap.  XL 

flowers.  Gartner  gradually  increased  the  number  of  pollen 
grains  until  he  succeeded  in  fertilising  a  Malva,  and  has^'^^ 
proved  that  many  grains  are  first  expended  in  the  development, 
or,  as  he  expresses  it,  in  the  satiation,  of  the  pistil  and  ovarium. 
Again,  when  one  plant  is  fertilised  by  a  widely  distinct 
species,  it  often  happens  that  the  ovarium  is  fully  and  quickly 
developed  without  any  seeds  being  formed  ;  or  the  coats  of 
the  seeds  are  formed  without  any  embryo  being  developed 
within.  Prof.  Plildebrand,  also,  has  lately  shown  ^^^  that,  in 
the  normal  fertilisation  of  several  Orchidese,  the  action  of 
the  plant's  own  pollen  is  necessary  for  the  development  of 
the  ovarium ;  and  that  this  development  takes  place  not 
only  long  before  the  pollen- tubes  have  reached  the  ovules, 
but  even  before  the  placentae  and  ovules  have  been  formed ; 
so  that  with  these  orchids  the  pollen  acts  directly  on  the 
ovarium.  On  the  other  hand,  we  must  not  overrate  the  effi- 
cacy of  pollen  in  the  case  of  hybridised  plants,  for  an  embryo 
may  be  formed  and  its  influence  excite  the  surrounding  tissues 
of  the  mother-plant,  and  then  perish  at  a  very  early  age 
and  be  thus  overlooked.  Again,  it  is  well  known  that  with 
many  plants  the  ovarium  may  be  fully  developed,  though 
pollen  be  wholly  excluded.  Lastly,  Mr.  Smith,  the  late 
Curator  at  Kew  (as  I  hear  through  Dr.  Hooker),  observed 
with  an  orchid,  the  Bonatea  speciosa,  the  singular  fact  that  the 
development  of  the  ovarium  could  be  effected  by  the  mechanical 
irritation  of  the  stigma.  Nevertheless,  from  the  number  of 
the  pollen-grains  expended  "in  the  satiation  of  the  ovarium 
and  pistil," — from  the  generality  of  the  formation  of  the 
ovarium  and  seed-coats  in  hybridised  plants  which  produce 
no  seeds, —and  from  Dr.  Hildebrand's  observations  on  orchids, 
we  may  admit  that  in  most  cases  the  swelling  of  the 
OA'arium,  and  the  formation  of  the  seed-coats  are  at  least 
aided,  if  not  wholly  caused,  by  the  direct  action  of  the  pollen, 
independently  of  the  intervention  of  the  feitilised  germ. 
Therefore,  in  the  previously  given    cases  we   have  only   to 

^^^  '  Beitrage   zur    Kenntniss     der  Wirkung    des    Pollens,'    '  Botanischa 

Befruchtung,'  1844,  s.  347-351.  Zeitung,'  No.  44  et  seq.,  Oct.  30,  ISfiS 

150  '  Die  Fruchtbildung  der  Orchi-  and  Aug.  4,  1865,  s.  249. 
deen,   ein    Beweis   fiir    die   doppelte 


CnAir.  XI        MALE  ELEMENT  ON  THE  MOTHEE-FOKM.  435 

believe  in  -the  further  power  of  pollen,  when  applied  to  a 
distinct  species  or  variety,  to  influence  the  shape,  size,  colour, 
texture,  &c.,  of  certain  parts  of  the  mother-plant. 

Turning  now  to  the  animal  kingdom,  if  we  could  imagine 
the  same  flower  to  yield  seeds  during  successive  years,  then  it 
would  not  be  very  surprising  that  a  flower  of  which  the 
ovarium  had  been  moditied  by  foreign  pollen  should  next 
year  produce,  when  self- fertilised,  offspring  modified  by 
the  previous  male  influence.  Closely  analogous  cases  have 
actually  occurred  with  animals.  In  the  case  often  quoted 
from  Lord  Morton, ^^^  a  nearly  purely-bred  Arabian  chesnut 
mare  bore  a  hybrid  to  a  quagga  ;  she  was  subsequently  sent 
to  Sir  Goie  Ouseley,  and  produced  two  colts  l»y  a  black  Arabian 
horse.  These  colts  were  partially  dun-coloured,  and  were 
striped  on  the  legs  more  plainly  than  the  real  hybrid,  or  even 
than  the  qnagga.  One  of  the  two  colts  had  its  neck  and 
some  other  parts  of  its  body  plainly  marked  with  stripes. 
Stripes  on  the  body,  not  to  mention  those  on  the  legs,  are  ex- 
tremely rare, — I  speak  after  having  long  attended  to  the 
subject, — with  horses  of  all  kinds  in  Europe,  and  are  almost 
unknown  in  the  case  of  Arabians.  But  what  makes  the  case 
still  more  striking  is  that  in  these  colts  the  hair  of  the  mane 
resembled  that  of  the  quagga,  being  short,  stiff,  and  upright. 
Hence  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  quagga  affected  the 
character  of  the  offspring  subseciuently  begot  by  the  black 
Arabian  horse.  Mr.  Jenner  Weir  informs  me  of  a  strictly 
parallel  case :  his  neighbour  Mr.  Lethbridge,  of  Blackheath, 
has  a  horse,  bred  by  Lord  Mostyn,  which  Lad  jDreviously 
borne  a  foal  by  a  quagga.  This  horse  is  dun  with  a  dark 
stripe  down  the  back,  faint  stripes  on  the  forehead  between  the 
eyes,  plain  stripes  on  the  inner  side  of  the  fore-legs  and  rather 
more  faint  ones  on  the  hind-legs,  with  no  shoulder-stiipe. 
The  mane  grows  much  lower  on  the  forehead  tlian  in  the 
horse,  but  not  so  low  as  in  the  quagga  or  zebra.  The  hoofs 
are  proportionally  longer  than  in  the  horse,  — so  much  so  that 
the  farrier  who  first  shod  this  animal,  and  knew  nothing  of 

'*»  'Philos.  Trausact.,'  1821,  p.  20. 


436 


ACTION   OF   MALE    ELEMENT. 


Chap.  XI. 


its  origin,  said,  "  Had  I  not  seen  I  was  shoeing  a  liorse,  I 
should  have  thought  I  was  shoeing  a  donkey." 

With  respect  to  the  varieties  of  our  domesticated  animals, 
many  similar  and  well-authenticated  facts  have  been  pub* 
lished,^^^  and  others  have  been  communicated  to  me,  plainly 
showing  the  influence  of  the  first  male  on  the  progeny  sub- 
sequently borne  by  the  mother  to  other  males.  It  will 
suffice  to  give  a  single  instance,  recorded  in  the '  Philosophical 
Transactions,'  in  a  paper  following  that  by  Lord  Morton  : 
Mr.  Giles  put  a  sow  of  Lord  Western's  black  and  white 
Essex  breed  to  a  wild  boar  of  a  deep  chesnut  colour ;  and 
the  "  pigs  produced  partook  in  appearance  of  both  boar  and 
BOW,  but  in  some  the  chesnut  colour  of  the  boar  strongly  pre- 
vailed." After  the  boar  had  long  been  dead,  the  sow  was 
put  to  a  boar  of  her  own  black  and  white  breed — a  kind 

^52  Dr.  Alex.  Harvey  on  'A  re- 
markable Effect  of  Cross-breeding,' 
1851.  On  the  '  Physiology  of  Breed- 
ing,* by  Mr.  Reginald  Orton,  1855. 
'Intermarriage,'  by  Alex.  Walker, 
1837.  'L'Heredite  Naturelle,'  by 
Dr.  Prosper  Lucas,  torn.  ii.  p.  58. 
Mr.  W.  Sedgwick  in  '  British  and 
Foreign  Medico-Chirurgical  Review,* 
1863,°  July,  p.  183.  Bronn,  in  his 
'  Geschichte  der  Natur,*  1843,  B.  ii. 
s.  127,  has  collected  several  cases 
with  respect  to  mares,  sows,  and  dogs. 
Mr.  W.  C.  L.  Martin  ('  History  of 
the  Dog,'  1845,  p.  104)  says  he  can 
personally  vouch  for  the  icfiuence 
of  the  male  parent  on  subsequent 
litters  by  other  dogs.  A  French  poet, 
Jacques  Savary,  who  wrote  in  1665 
on  dogs,  was  aware  of  this  singular 
tact.  Dr.  Bowerbank  has  given  us 
the  following  striking  case  : — A  black, 
hairless  Barbary  bitch  was  first  ac- 
cidentally impregnated  by  a  mongrel 
spaniel  with  long  brown  hair,  and 
she  produced  five  puppies,  three  of 
which  were  hairless  and  two  covered 
with  short  brown  hair.  The  next 
time  she  was  put  to  a  black,  hairless 
Barbary  dog ;  "  but  the  mischief 
Had  been  implanted  in  the  mother, 
and  again  about  half  the  litter  looked 
like    puie  Barbarys,   and    the    other 


half  like  the  sAorf-haired  progeny  of 
the  first  father."  1  have  given  in 
the  text  one  case  with  pigs  ;  an 
equally  striking  one  has  been  recently 
published  in  Germany,  '  lllust. 
Landwirth.  Zeitung,'  1868,  Nov.  17, 
p.  143.  It  is  worth  notice  that 
farmers  in  S.  Brazil  (as  1  hear  from 
Fritz  Miiller),  and  at  the  C.  of  Good 
Hope  (as  I  have  heard  from  two 
trustworthy  persons)  are  convinced 
that  mares  which  haA'e  once  borne 
mules,  when  subsequently  put  to 
horses,  are  extremely  liable  to  pro- 
duce colts,  striped  like  a  mule.  Dr. 
Wilckens,  of  Pogarth,  gives  ('Jahrbuch 
Landwirthschaft,'  ii-  1869,  p.  325) 
a  striking  and  analogous  case.  A 
merino  ram,  having  two  small  lappets 
or  flaps  of  skin  on  the  neck,  was  in  the 
winter  of  1861-62  put  to  several 
Merino  ewes,  all  of  whom  bore  lambs 
with  similar  flaps  on  their  necks. 
The  ram  was  killed  in  the  spring  of 
1862,  and  subsequently  to  his  death 
the  ewes  were  put  to  other  Merino 
rams,  and  in  1863  to  Southdown 
rams,  none  of  v/hom  ever  have  neck 
lappets  :  nevertheless,  even  as  long 
afterwards  as  1867,  several  of  thesp 
ewes  produced  lambs  bearing  thirt.se 
appendages. 


Ch^.  XL  SUMMARY    OF   THE    CHAPTER.  437 

which  is  well  known  to  breed  very  true  and  never  to  show 
any  ohesnut  colour, — yet  from  this  union  the  sow  produced 
some  young  pigs  which  were  plainly  marked  with  the  same 
ohesnut  tint  as  in  the  fir^it  litter.  Similar  cases  have  so 
frequently  occurred,  that  careful  breeders  avoid  putting  a 
choice  female  of  any  animal  to  an  inferior  male,  on  account 
of  the  injury  to  her  subsequent  progeny  which  may  be 
expected  to  follow. 

Some  physiologists  have  attempted  to  account  for  these 
remarkable  results  from  a  previous  impregnation,  by  the 
imagination  of  the  mother  having  been  strongly  affected; 
but  it  will  hereafter  be  seen  that  there  are  very  slight  grounds 
for  any  such  belief.  Other  physiologists  attribute  the  result 
to  the  close  attachment  and  freely  intercommunicating  blood- 
vessels between  the  modified  embryo  and  mother.  But  the 
analogy  from  the  action  of  foreign  pollen  on  the  ovarium,  seed- 
coats,  and  other  parts  of  the  mother-plant,  strongly  supports 
the  belief  that  with  animals  the  male  element  acts  directly  on 
the  female,  and  not  through  the  crossed  embryo.  With 
birds  there  is  no  close  connection  between  the  embryo  and 
mother ;  yet  a  careful  observer,  Dr.  Chapuis,  states  ^°^  that 
with  pigeons  the  influence  of  a  first  male  sometimes  makes 
itself  perceived  in  the  succeeding  broods ;  but  this  statement 
requires  confirmation. 

Conclasion  and  Summary  of  the  Chapter. — The  facts  given  in 
the  latter  half  of  this  chapter  are  well  worthy  of  consideration, 
as  they  show  us  in  how  many  extraordinary  modes  the  union 
of  one  form  with  another  may  lead  to  the  modification  of  the 
seminal  offspring  or  of  the  buds,  afterwards  produced. 

There  is  nothing  surprising  in  the  offspring  of  species  or 
varieties  crossed  in  the  ordinary  manner  being  modified  ;  but 
the  case  of  two  plants  within  the  same  seed,  which  cohere 
and  differ  from  each  other,  is  curious.  When  a  bud  is  formed 
after  the  cellular  tissue  of  two  species  or  two  varieties  have 
been  united,  and  it  partakes  of  the  characters  of  both 
parents,  the  case  is  wonderful.  But  I  need  not  here  repeat 
what   has  been   so  lately   said  on   this   subject.     We   have 

'"  '  Le  Pigeon  Voyageur  Beige,'  18G5,  p.  59. 


438  CONCLUSION   AND   SUMMAKY  Chap.  XL 

also  seen  that  in  the  case  of  plants  tlie  male  element  may 
affect  in  a  direct  manner  the  tissues  of  the  mother,  and 
with  animals  may  lead  to  the  modification  of  her  future  pro- 
geny. In  the  vegetable  kingdom  the  offspring  from  a  cross 
between  two  species  or  varieties,  whether  effected  by  seminal 
generation  or  by  grafting,  often  revert,  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree,  in  the  first  or  in  a  succeeding  generation,  to  the  two 
parent-forms  ;  and  this  reversion  may  affect  the  whole  flower, 
fruit,  or  leaf-bud,  or  only  the  half  or  a  smaller  segment  of  a 
single  organ.  In  some  cases,  however,  such  segregation  of 
character  apparently  depends  on  an  incapacity  for  union  rather 
than  on  reversion,  for  the  flowers  or  fruit  which  are  first  pro- 
duced display  by  segments  the  characters  of  both  parents.  The 
various  facts  here  given  ought  to  be  well  considered  by  any 
one  who  wishes  to  embrace  under  a  single  point  of  view  the 
many  modes  of  reproduction  by  gemmation,  division,  and 
sexual  union,  the  reparation  of  lost  parts,  variation,  inheritance, 
reversion,  and  other  such  phenomena.  Towards  the  close  of 
the  second  volume  I  shall  attempt  to  connect  these  facts 
together  by  the  hypothesis  of  pangenesis. 

In  the  early  half  of  the  present  chapter  I  have  given  a  long 
list  of  plants  in  which  through  bud- variation,  that  is,  inde- 
pendently of  reproduction  by  seed,  the  fruit  has  suddenly 
become  modified  in  size,  colour,  flavour,  hairiness,  shape,  and 
time  of  maturity ;  flowers  have  similarly  changed  in  shape, 
colour,  in  being  double,  and  greatly  in  the  character  of  the 
calyx ;  young  branches  or  shoots  have  changed  in  colour,  in 
bearing  spines  and  in  habit  of  growth,  as  in  climbing  or  in 
weeping;  leaves  have  changed  in  becoming  variegated,  in 
shape,  period  of  unfolding,  and  in  their  arrangement  on  the 
axis.  Buds  of  all  kinds,  whether  produced  on  ordinary  branches 
or  on  subterranean  stems,  whether  simple  or  much  modified 
and  supplied  with  a  stock  of  nutriment,  as  in  tubers  and  bulbs, 
are  all  liable  to  sudden  variations  of  the  same  general  nature. 

In  the  list,  many  of  the  cases  are  certainly  due  to  rever.sion 
to  characters  not  acquired  from  a  cross,  but  which  were 
formerly  present  and  have  since  been  lost  for  a  longer  or 
shorter  time; — as  when  a  bud  on  a  variegated  plant  produces 
plain  leaves,  or  when  the  variously-coloured  flowers  of  the 


Chaj'.  XI,  OF   THE    CHAPTER.  439 

Chrysautliemuin  revert  to  the  aboriginal  yellow  tint.  Many 
other  cases  included  in  the  list  are  probably  due  to  the  plants 
being  of  crossed  parentage,  and  to  the  buds  reverting  either 
completely  or  by  segments  to  one  of  the  two  parent-forms. ^^^ 

We  may  suspect  that  the  strong  tendency  in  the  Chrysan- 
themum to  produce  by  bud-variation  differently-coloured 
ftowers,  results  froui  the  varieties  having  been  at  some  time 
intentionally  or  accidentally  crossed ;  and  this  is  certainly 
the  case  with  some  kinds  of  Pelargonium.  So  it  may  be  to  a 
large  extent  with  the  bud- varieties  of  the  Dahlia,  and  with 
the  "  broken  colours  "  of  Tulips,  When,  however,  a  plant 
reverts  by  bud-variation  to  its  two  parent  forms,  or  to  one  of 
them,  it  sometimes  does  not  revert  perfectly,  but  assumes  a 
somewhat  new  character, — of  which  fact,  instances  have  been 
given,  and  Carriere  gives^^^  another  in  the  cherry. 

Many  cases  of  bud-variation,  however,  cannot  be  attributed 
to  reversion,  but  to  so-called  spontaneous  variability,  as  is 
so  common  with  cultivated  plants  raised  from  seed.  As  a 
single  variety  of  the  Chrysanthemum  has  produced  by  buds 
six  other  varieties,  and  as  one  variety  of  the  gooseberrj'  has 
borne  at  the  same  time  four  distinct  kinds  of  fruit,  it  is 
scarcely  possible  to  believe  that  all  these  variations  are  due  to 
reversion.  We  can  hardly  believe,  as  remarked  in  a  previous 
chapter,  that  all  the  many  peaches  which  have  yielded 
nectarine-buds  are  of  crossed  parentage.  Lastly,  in  such 
cases  as  that  of  the  moss-rose,  with  its  peculiar  calyx,  and  of 
the  rose  which  bears  opposite  leaves,  in  that  of  the  Imanto- 
phyllum,  &c.,  there  is  no  known  natural  species  or  variety 

^^*  It  may  be  worth  while  to  call  version  to  a  character  not  originally 

attention    to    the    several  means    by  gained  by    a    cross,    but    which    had 

which     flowers    and      fruit     become  long  been  lost,  as  with  white-flowered 

striped  or  mottled.     Firstly,  by  the  varieties,  which  we  shall  hereafter  see 

direct  action  of  the  pollen  of  another  often  become  striped  with  some  other 

variety    or    species,    as    in   the  cases  colour.     Lastly,   there    are   cases,   as 

givenof  oranges  and  maize.    Secondly,  when    pearhes  are  produced   with    a 

ii     crosses    of    the    first    generation,  half  or  quarter  of  the    fruit    like    a 

when  the  colours  of  the  two  parents  nectarine,    in    which    the    change    is 

«lo  not  readily  unite,  as  with  Alirabilis  apparently    due    to    mere   variation, 

and  Dianthus,     Thirdly,    in    crossed  through      either      bud     or     seminal 

jjlants    of    a   subsequent    generation  generation. 

by  reversion,  through  either   bud  or  '"  '  Production  des    Varidt^s,     p, 

seminal  generation.     Fourthly,  by  re-  37. 


440  CONCLUSION  AND   SUMMARY  Chap.  XI, 

from  whicli  the  cliaracters  in  question  could  have  been  derived 
by  a  cross.  We  must  attribute  all  such  cases  to  the  appear- 
ance of  absolutely  new  characters  in  the  buds.  The  varieties 
which  have  thus  arisen  cannot  be  distinguished  by  any 
external  character  from  seedlings  ;  this  is  notoriously  the  case 
with  the  varieties  of  the  Kose,  Azalea,  and  many  other  plants. 
It  deserves  notice  that  all  the  plants  which  have  yielded 
bud-variations  have  likewise  varied  greatlj''  by  seed. 

The  plants  which  have  varied  by  buds  belong  to  so  many 
orders  that  we  may  infer  that  almost  every  plant  would  be 
liable  to  variation,  if  placed  under  the  proper  exciting 
conditions.  These  conditions,  as  far  as  we  can  judge,  mainly 
depend  on  long-continued  and  high  cultivation ;  for  almost 
all  the  plants  in  the  foregoing  list  are  perennials,  and  have 
been  largely  propagated  in  many  soils,  under  different  climates, 
by  cuttings,  offsets,  bulbs,  tubers,  and  especially  by  budding 
or  grafting.  The  instances  of  annuals  varying  by  buds,  or 
producing  on  the  same  plant  differently  coloured  flowers, 
are  comparatively  rare  :  Hopkirk  ^^^  has  seen  this  with  Con- 
volvulus tricolor  ;  and  it  is  not  uncommon  with  the  Balsam 
and  annual  Delphinium.  According  to  Sir  E.  Schomburgk, 
plants  from  the  warmer  temperate  regions,  when  cultivated 
under  the  hot  climate  of  St.  Domingo,  are  eminently  liable  to 
bud-variation.  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  Sedgwick  that  moss- 
roses  which  have  often  been  taken  to  Calcutta  always  there 
lose  their  mossiness ;  but  change  of  climate  is  by  no  means  a 
necessary  contingent,  as  we  see  with  the  gooseberry,  currant, 
and  in  many  other  cases.  Plants  living  under  their  natural 
conditions  are  very  rarely  subject  to  bud-variation.  Varie- 
gated leaves  have,  however,  been  observed  under  such  circum- 
stances ;  and  I  have  given  an  instance  of  variation  by  buds  on 
an  ash-tree  planted  in  ornamental  grounds,  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  such  a  tree  can  be  considered  as  living  under  strictly 
natural  conditions.  Gartner  has  seen  white  and  dark  red 
flowers  produced  from  the  same  root  of  the  wild  Achillea 
wAlle folium ;  and  Prof.  Caspary  has  seen  a  completely  wild 
Viola  lutea  bearing  flowers  of  two  different  colours  andsizes.^^' 

156  «  Flora  Anomala,'  p.  164.  Gesell.  zu  Konigsberg,'  Band  vL,  Feb 

"'  'Schriften   der    physisch-okon.       3,  1865,  s.  4. 


Chap.  XL  OF   THE   CHAPTER.  441 

As  wild  plants  are  so  rarely  liable  to  bud- variation,  whilst 
highly  cultivated  plants  long  propagated  by  artificial  means 
have  yielded  many  varieties  by  this  form  of  rej)roduction,  wo 
are  led  through  a  series  such  as  the  following, — namely,  all 
the  eyes  in  the  same  tuber  of  the  potato  varying  in  the  same 
manner, — all  the  fruit  on  a  purple  plum-tree  suddenly 
becoming  yellow, — all  the  fruit  on  a  double-flowered  almond 
suddenly  becoming  peach  like, — all  the  buds  on  grafted  trees 
being  in  a  very  slight  degree  affected  by  the  stock  on  which 
they  have  been  worked,— all  the  flowers  on  a  transplanted 
heartsease  changing  for  a  time  in  colour,  size,  and  shape, — we 
are  led  by  such  a  series  to  look  at  every  case  of  bud- variation 
as  the  direct  result  of  the  conditions  of  life  to  which  the 
plant  has  been  exposed.  On  the  other  hand,  plants  ot  the 
same  variety  may  be  cultivated  in  two  adjoining  beds,  appa- 
rently under  exactly  the  same  conditions,  and  those  in  the  one 
bed,  as  Carriere  insists,^^^  will  produce  many  bud-variations, 
and  those  in  the  other  not  a  single  one.  Again,  if  we  look  to 
such  cases  as  that  of  a  peach-tree  which,  after  having  been  cul- 
tivated by  tens  of  thousands  during  many  years  in  many 
countries,  and  after  having  annually  produced  millions  of 
buds,  all  of  which  have  apparently  been  exposed  to  precisely 
the  same  conditions,  yet  at  last  suddenly  produces  a  single 
bud  with  its  whole  character  greatly  transformed,  we  are 
driven  to  the  conclusion  that  the  transformation  stands  in 
no  direct  relation  to  the  conditions  of  life. 

We  have  seen  that  varieties  produced  from  seeds  and  from 
buds  resemble  each  other  so  closel}^  in  general  appearance 
that  they  cannot  be  distinguished.  Just  as  certain  species 
and  groups  of  species,  when  propagated  by  seed,  are  more 
variable  than  other  species  or  genera,  so  it  is  in  the  case  of 
certain  bud- varieties.  Thus,  the  Queen  of  England  Chr}^- 
santhemum  has  produced  by  this  latter  process  no  less  than 
six,  and  Eollisson's  Unique  Pelargonium  four  distinct 
vaiieties ;  moss-roses  have  also  produced  several  other  moss- 
roses.  The  Eosacege  have  varied  by  buds  more  than  any 
other  group  of  plants ;  but  this  may  be  in  large  part  due 
to  so  many  members  having  been  long  cultivated;  but 
158  'Production  des  Varietes,'  pp.  58,  70. 


442  CONCLUSION   AND   SUMMAKY  Chap.  XI 

within  this  same  group,  the  peach  has  often  varied  by  buds^ 
whilst  the  apple  and  pear,  both  grafted  trees  extensively 
cultivated,  have  afforded,  as  far  as  1  can  ascertain,  extremely 
few  instances  of  bud-variation. 

The  law  of  analogous  variation  holds  good  with  varieties 
produced  by  buds,  as  with  those  produced  from  seed  :  more 
than  one  kind  of  rose  has  sported  into  a  moss-rose;  more 
than  one  kind  of  camellia  has  assumed  an  hexagonal  form  ;  and 
at  least  seven  or  eight  varieties  of  the  peach  have  produced 
nectarines. 

The  laws  of  inheritance  seem  to  be  nearly  the  same  with 
seminal  and  bud  varieties.  We  know  how  commonly  reversion 
comes  into  play  with  both,  and  it  may  affect  the  whole,  or 
only  segments  of  a  leaf,  flower,  or  fruit.  When  the  tendency 
to  reversion  affects  many  buds  on  the  same  tree,  it  becomes 
covered  with  different  kinds  of  leaves,  flowers,  or  fruit ;  but 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  such  fluctuating  varieties  have 
generally  arisen  from  seed.  It  is  well  known  that,  out  of  a 
number  of  seedling  varieties,  some  transmit  their  character 
much  more  trul}^  by  seed  than  others  ;  so  with  bud- varieties, 
some  retain  their  character  by  successive  buds  more  truly  than 
others ;  of  which  instances  have  been  given  with  two  kinds 
of  variegated  Euonymus  and  with  certain  kinds  of  tulips  and 
pelargoniums.  Notwithstanding  the  sudden  production  of 
bud-varieties,  the  characters  thus  acquired  are  sometimes 
capable  of  transmission  by  seminal  reproduction  :  Mr.  Eivers 
has  found  that  moss-roses  generally  reproduce  themselves  by 
seed  ;  and  the  mossy  character  has  been  transferred  by  crossing 
from  one  species  of  rose  to  another.  The  Boston  nectarine, 
which  appeared  as  a  bud- variation,  produced  by  seed  a  closely 
allied  nectarine.  On  the  other  hand,  seedlings  from  some 
bnd-variations  have  proved  variable  to  an  extreme  degree.^^'^ 
We  have  also  heard,  on  the  authority  of  Mr.  Salter,  that 
seeds  taken  from  a  bianch  with  leaves  variegated  through 
bud-variation,  transmit  this  character  very  feebly ;  whilst 
many  plants,  which  were  variegated  as  seedlings,  transmit 
variegation  to  a  large  proportion  of  their  progeny. 

Although  I  have  been  able  to  collect  a  good  many  cases  of 

*5^  Carri&re,  '  Production  des  Varietes,'  p.  39. 


Chap.  XI.  OP   THE   CHAPTER.  443 

bud-variation,  as  sho^ni  in  the  previous  lists,  and  might  pro- 
bably, by  searching  foreign  horticultural  works,  have  col- 
lected very  many  more  cases,  yet  their  total  number  is  as 
nothing  in  comparison  with  that  of  seminal  varieties.  With 
seedlings  raised  from  the  more  variable  cultivated  plants,  tho 
variations  are  almost  infinitely  numerous,  but  their  differences 
are  generally  slight :  only  at  long  intervals  of  time  a  strongly 
marked  modification  appears.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  a 
singular  and  inexplicable  fact  that,  when  plants  vary  by  buds, 
the  variations,  though  they  occur  with  comparative  rarity,  are 
often,  or  even  generally,  strongly  pronounced.  It  struck  me  that 
this  might  perhaps  be  a  delusion,  and  that  slight  changes  often 
occurred  in  buds,  .but  were  overlooked  or  not  recorded  from 
being  of  no  value.  Accordingly,  I  applied  to  two  great 
authorities  on  this  subject,  namely,  to  Mr.  Rivers  with 
respect  to  fruit-trees,  and  to  Mr.  Salter  with  respect  to  flowers. 
Mr.  Elvers  is  doubtful,  but  does  not  remember  having  noticed 
very  slight  variations  in  fruit-buds.  Mr.  Salter  informs  me 
that  with  flowers  such  do  occur,  but,  if  propagated,  they 
generally  lose  their  new  character  in  the  following  year  ;  yet 
he  concurs  with  me  that  bud-variations  usually  at  once  assume 
a  decided  and  permanent  character.  We  can  hardly  doubt 
that  this  is  the  rule,  when  we  reflect  on  such  cases  as  that 
of  the  peach,  which  has  been  so  carefully  observed,  and  of 
which  such  trifling  seminal  varieties  have  been  propagated,  yet 
this  tree  has  repeatedly  produced  b}^  bud-variation  nectarines, 
and  only  twice  (as  far  as  I  can  learn)  any  other  variety, 
njimely,  the  Early  and  Late  Grosse  Mignonne  peaches  ;  and 
these  differ  from  the  parent-tree  in  hardly  any  character 
except  the  period  of  maturity. 

To  my  surprise,  I  hear  from  Mr.  Salter  that  he  brings  the 
principle  of  selection  to  bear  on  variegated  plants  propagated 
by  buds,  and  has  thus  greatly  improved  and  fixed  several 
varieties.  He  informs  me  that  at  first  a  branch  often  pro- 
duces variegated  leaves  on  one  side  alone,  and  that  the  leaves 
are  marked  only  with  an  irregular  edging  or  with  a  few  lines 
of  white  and  yellow.  To  improve  and  fix  such  varieties,  he 
finds  it  necessary  to  encourage  the  buds  at  the  bases  of  the 
most  distinctly  marked  loaves,  and  to  propagate  from  them 


Mi  SUMMAEY   OF   THE   CHAPTEK.  Chap.  XL 

alone.  By  following  with  perseverance  this  plan  during 
three  or  four  successive  seasons,  a  distinct  and  fixed  variety 
can  generally  be  secured. 

Finally,  the  facts  given  in  this  chapter  prove  in  how  close 
and  remarkable  a  manner  the  germ  of  a  fertilised  seed  and 
the  small  cellular  mass  forming  a  bnd,  resemble  each  other  in 
all  their  functions — in  their  power  of  inheritance  with  occa- 
sional reversion, — and  in  their  capacity  for  variation  of  the 
same  general  nature,  in  obedience  to  the  same  laws.  This  re- 
semblance, or  rather  identity  of  character,  is  shown  in  the 
most  striking  manner  by  the  fact  that  the  cellular  tissue 
of  one  species  or  variety,  when  budded  or  grafted  on  another, 
may  give  rise  to  a  bud  having  an  intermediate  character. 
We  have  seen  that  variability  does  not  depend  on  sexual 
generation,  though  much  more  frequently  its  concomitant  than 
of  bud  reproduction.  We  have  seen  that  bud-variability 
is  not  solely  dependent  on  reversion  or  atavism  to  long -lost 
characters,  or  to  those  formerly  acquired  from  a  cross,  but 
appears  often  to  be  spontaneous.  But  when  we  ask  ourselves 
what  is  the  cause  of  any  particular  bud- variation,  we  are  lost 
in  doubt,  being  driven  in  some  cases  to  look  to  the  direct 
action  of  the  external  conditions  of  life  as  sufficient,  and  in 
other  cases  to  feel  a  profound  conviction  that  these  have  played 
a  quite  subordinate  part,  of  not  more  importance  than  the 
nature  of  the  spark  which  ignites  a  mass  of  combustible 
matter. 


Chap.  XII.  INHERITANCE.  44.5 


CHAPTER  XII. 

INHEEITANCE. 

WONDEKFUL  NATURE  OP  INHERITANCE — PEDIGREES  OF  OUR  DOMESTICATED 
ANIMALS — INHERITANCE  NOT  DUE  TO  CHANCE — TRIFLING  CHARACTERS 
INHERITED — DISEASES  INHERITED — PECULIARITIES  IN  THE  EYE  INHERITED 
— DISEASES  IN  THE  HORSE — LONGEVITY  AND  VIGOUR — ASYMMETRICAL 
DEVIATIONS  OF  STRUCTURE — POLYDACTYLISM  AND  REGRO^\TH  OF  SUPER- 
NUMERARY DIGITS  AFTER  AMPUTATION — CASES  OF  SEVERAL  CHILDREN 
SIMILARLY  AFFECTED  FROM  NON  -  AFFECTED  PARENTS  —  WEAK  AND 
FLUCTUATING  INHERITANCE  :  IN  WEEPING  TREES,  IN  DWARFNESS,  COLOUR 
OF  FRUIT  AND  FLOWERS— COLOUR  OF  HORSES  —  N0N-INHERIT4NCE  IN 
CERTAIN  CASES  — INHERITANCE  OF  STRUCTURE  AND  HABITS  OVERBORNE 
BY  HOSTILE  CONDITIONS  OF  LIFE,  BY  INCESSANTLY  RECURRING  VARIA- 
BILITY,   AND    BY   REVERSION — CONCLUSION. 

The  subject  of  inheritance  is  an  immense  one,  and  has  been 
treated  by  many  anthers.  One  work  alone,  'De  I'Heredite 
Naturelle,'  by  Dr.  Prosper  Lucas,  runs  to  the  length  of  1562 
pages.  We  must  confine  ourselves  to  certain  points  w^hich  have 
an  important  bearing  on  the  general  subject  of  variation,  both 
with  domestic  and  natural  productions.  It  is  obvious  that  a 
variation  which  is  not  inherited  throws  no  light  on  the  deri- 
vation of  species,  nor  is  of  any  service  to  man,  except  in  the 
case  of  perennial  ]3lants,  which  can  be  propagated  by  buds. 

If  animals  and  plants  had  never  been  domesticated,  and 
wild  ones  alone  had  been  observed,  we  should  probably  nevei 
have  heard  the  saying,  that  "  like  begets  like."  The  propo 
sition  would  have  been  as  self-evident  as  that  all  the  buds  on 
the  same  tree  are  alike,  though  neither  proposition  is  strictly 
true.  For,  as  has  often  been  remarked,  probably  no  two 
individuals  are  identically  the  same.  All  wild  animals  re- 
cognise each  other,  which  shows  that  there  is  some  difference 
between  them ;  and  when  the  eye  is  well  practised,  the  shep- 
herd knows  each  sheep,  and  man  can  distinguish  a  fellow- 
man  out  of  millions  on  millions  of  other  men.  Some  authors 
have  gone  so  far  as  to  maintain  that  the  production  of  slight 
differences  is  as  much  a  necessary  function  of  the  powers  of 


446  INHERITANCE.  Chap.  XII 

generation,  as  tlie  production  of  offspring  like  their  parents. 
This  view,  as  we  shall  see  in  a  future  chapter,  is  not  theoreti- 
cally probable,  though  practically  it  holds  good.  The  saying 
that  "  like  begets  like  "  has,  in  fact,  arisen  from  the  perfect 
confidence  felt  by  breeders,  that  a  superior  or  inferior  animal 
will  generally  reproduce  its  kind ;  but  this  very  superiority 
or  inferiority  shows  that  the  individual  in  question  has 
departed  slightly  from  its  type. 

The  whole  subject  of  inheritance  is  wonderful.  When  a 
new  character  arises,  whatever  its  nature  may  be,  it  generally 
tends  to  be  inherited,  at  least  in  a  temporary  and  sometimes 
in  a  most  persistent  manner.  What  can  be  more  wonderful 
than  that  ^ome  trifling  peculiarity,  not  primordially  attached 
to  the  species,  should  be  transmitted  through  the  male  or 
female  sexual  cells,  which  are  so  minute  as  not  to  be  visible 
to  the  naked  eye,  and  afterwards  through  the  incessant 
changes  of  a  long  course  of  development,  undergone  either  in 
the  womb  or  in  the  egg,  and  ultimately  appear  in  the  offspring 
when  mature,  or  even  when  quite  old,  as  in  the  case  of  certain 
diseases  ?  Or  again,  what  can  be  more  wonderful  than  the 
well-ascertained  fact  that  the  minute  ovule  of  a  good  milking 
cow  will  produce  a  male,  from  whom  a  cell,  in  union  with  an 
ovule,  will  produce  a  female,  and  she,  when  mature,  will  have 
large  mammary  glands,  yielding  an  abundant  supply  of  milk, 
and  even  milk  of  a  particular  qualit}^?  Nevertheless,  the 
real  subject  of  surprise  is,  as  Sir  H.  Holland  has  well  remarked,^ 
not  that  a  character  should  be  inherited,  but  that  any  should 
ever  fail  to  be  inherited.  In  a  future  chapter,  devoted  to  an 
hypothesis  which  I  have  termed  pangenesis,  an  attempt  will 
be  made  to  show  the  means  by  which  characters  of  all  kinds 
are  transmitted  from  generation  to  generation. 

Some  writers,^  who  have  not  attended  to  natural  history, 
have  attempted  to  show  that  the  force  of  inheritance  has  been 
much  exaggerated.  The  breeders  of  animals  would  smile  at 
such   simplicity;    and   if  they   condescended    to   make  any 

^  *  Medical  Notes   and  Reflections,'  tistics.    See  also  Mr.  Bowen,  Professor 

3rd  edit.,  1855,  p.  267.  of     Moral     Philosophy,     in     'Proa 

2  Mr.  Buckle,  in  his   *  History  of  American  Acad,  of  Sciences,'  vol.  v. 

Civilisation,'  expresses  doubts  on  the  p.  102. 
s abject,  owing   to  the  want  of  sta- 


Chap.  XII.  INHERITANCE.  447 

answer,  might  ask  what  would  be  the  chance  of  winning  a 
prize  if  two  inferior  animals  were  paired  together  ?  They 
might  ask  whether  the  half-wild  Arabs  were  led  by  theoreti- 
C5al  notions  to  keep  pedigrees  of  their  horses  ?  Why  have 
pedigrees  been  scrupulously  kept  and  published  of  the  Short- 
horn cattle,  and  more  recently  of  the  Hereford  breed  ?  Is  it 
in  illusion  that  these  recently  improved  animals  safely  tians- 
Qiit  their  excellent  qualities  even  when  crossed  with  other 
breeds?  haA^e  the  Shorthorns,  without  good  reason,  been 
purchased  at  immense  prices  and  exported  to  almost  every 
lusbvter  of  the  globe,  a  thousand  guineas  having  been  given 
for  a  bull?  With  greyhounds  pedigrees  have  likewise  been 
kept,  and  the  names  of  such  dogs,  as  Snowball,  Major,  &c., 
are  as  well  known  to  coursers  as  those  of  Eclipse  and  Herod 
on  the  tnrf.  Even  with  the  Gamecock,  pedigrees  of  famous 
strains  were  formerly  kept,  and  extended  back  for  a  century. 
With  pigs,  the  Yorkshire  and  Cumberland  breeders  "  preserve 
and  print  pedigrees  ;"  and  to  show  how  such  highly-bred 
animals  are  valued,  I  may  mention  that  Mr.  Brown,  who 
won  all  the  first  prizes  for  small  breeds  at  Birmingham  in 
1850,  sold  a  young  sow  and  boar  of  his  breed  to  Lord  Ducie 
for  43  guineas ;  the  sow  alone  was  afterwards  sold  to  the 
Kev.  F.  Thursby  for  65  guineas ;  who  writes,  "  She  paid  me 
very  well,  having  sold  her  produce  for  300/.,  and  having  now 
four  breeding  sows  from  her."  ^  Hard  cash  paid  down,  over 
and  over  again,  is  an  excellent  test  of  inherited  suj)eriority. 
In  fact,  the  whole  art  of  breeding,  from  which  such  great 
results  have  been  attained  during  the  present  century,  depends 
on  the  inheritance  of  each  small  detail  of  structure.  But 
inheritance  is  nor  certain;  for  if  it  were,  the  breeder's  art* 
would  be  reduced  to  a  certainty,  and  there  would  be  little 
scope  left  for  that  wonderful  skill  and  perseverance  shown  by 
the  men  who  have  left  an  enduring  monument  of  their  success 
in  the  present  state  of  our  domesticated  animals. 

It  is  hardly  possible,  within  a  moderate  compass,  to  impress 

For  greyhounds,  see    Low's  '  Do-  Mr.  Sidney's  edit,  of  '  Youatt,  on  the 

mestic  Animals  of  the  British  Islands,'  Pig,'  1860,  pp.  11,  22. 

1845,  p.  721.      For   game-fowls,   see  ^  '  The    Stud    Farm,'  by  Cecil,  p. 

'The   Poultry  Book,'   by  Mr.  Teget-  39. 
meier,  1866,  p.  123.     For   pigs,  see 


448  INHEKITANCE.  Chap.  XIL 

on  the  mind  of  those  who  have  not  attended  to  the  subject, 
the  full  conviction  of  the  force  of  inheritance  which  is  slo^^ly 
acquired  by  rearing  animals,  by  studying  the  many  treatises 
which  have  been  published  on  the  various  domestic  animals, 
and  by  conversing  with  breeders.  I  will  select  a  few  facts 
of  the  kind,  which,  as  far  as  I  can  judge,  have  most  influenced 
my  own  mind.  With  man  and  the  domestic  animals,  certain 
peculiarities  have  appeared  in  an  individual,  at  rare  intervals, 
or  only  once  or  twice  in  the  history  of  the  world,  but  have 
reappeared  in  several  of  the  children  and  grandchildren. 
Thus  Lambert,  "  the  porcupine-man,"  whose  skin  was  thickly 
covered  with  warty  projections,  which  were  periodically 
moulted,  had  all  his  six  children  and  two  grandsons  similarly 
affected.^  The  face  and  body  being  covered  with  long  hair, 
accompanied  by  deficient  teeth  (to  which  I  shall  hereafter 
refer),  occurred  in  three  successive  generations  in  a  Siamese 
family ;  but  this  case  is  not  unique,  as  a  woman  ^  with  a 
completely  hairy  face  who  was  exhibited  in  London  in  1663, 
and  another  instance  has  recently  occurred.  Colonel  H  allam  '^ 
has  described  a  race  of  two-legged  pigs,  "the  hinder  extremi- 
ties being  entirely  wanting ;"  and  this  deficiency  was  trans- 
mitted through  three  generations.  In  fact,  all  races 
presenting  any  remarkable  peculiarity,  such  as  solid-hoofed 
swine,  Mauchamp  sheep,  niata  cattle,  &c.,  are  instances  of  the 
Ions-continued  inheritance  of  rare  deviations  of  structure. 

When  we  reflect  that  certain  extraordinary  peculiarities 
have  thus  appeared  in  a  single  individual  out  of  many 
millions,  all  exposed  in  the  same  country  to  the  same  general 
conditions  of  life,  and,  again,  that  the  same  extraordinary 
peculiarity  has  sometimes  appeared  in  individuals  living 
under  widely  different  conditions  of  life,  we  are  driven  to 
conclude  that  such  peculiarities  are  not  directly  due  to  the 
action  of  the  surrounding  conditions,  but  to  unknown  laws 
acting  on  the  organisation  or  constitution  of  the  individual ; 

*  'Philosophical Transactions,' 1755,  the  males  alone. 
p.  23.     I  have  seen  only  second-hand  ^  Barbara  Van  Beck,  tlgured,  as  I 

accounts  of  the  two  grandsons.     Mr.  am  informed  by  the  Rev.  W.  D.  Fox, 

Sedgwick,  in  a  paper  to  which  I  shall  in    Woodburn's    '  Gallery     of    Rare 

hereafter  often  refer,  states  that  four  Portraits,'  1816,  vol.  ii. 
generations  were  affected,  and  in  each  ^  '  Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,'  1833^  p.  16. 


Chap.  XI 1.  INHEKITANCE.  449 

— that  their  production  stands  in  hardly  closer  relation  to  the 
conditions  of  life  than  does  life  itself.  If  this  be  so,  and  the 
occurrence  of  the  same  unusual  character  in  the  child  and 
parent  cannot  be  attributed  to  both  having  been  exposed  to 
the  same  unusual  conditions,  then  the  following  problem  is 
worth  consideration,  as  showing  that  the  result  cannot  be 
due.  as  some  authors  have  supposed,  to  mere  coincidence,  but 
must  be  consequent  on  the  members  of  the  same  family- 
inheriting  something  in  common  in  their  constitution.  Let 
it  be  assumed  that,  in  a  large  population,  a  particular  affec- 
tion occurs  on  an  average  in  one  out  of  a  million,  so  that  the 
a  priori  chance  that  an  individual  taken  at  random  will  be 
so  affected  is  only  one  in  a  million.  Let  the  population 
consist  of  sixty  millions,  composed,  we  will  assume,  of  ten 
million  families,  each  containing  six  members.  On  these 
data,  Professor  Stokes  has  calculated  for  me  that  the  odds 
will  be  no  less  than  8333  millions  to  1  that  in  the  ten  million 
families  there  will  not  be  even  a  single  family  in  which  one 
parent  and  two  children  will  be  affected  by  the  peculiarity 
in  question.  But  numerous  instances  could  be  given,  in 
which  several  children  have  been  affected  by  the  same  rare 
peculiarity  with  one  of  their  parents  ;  and  in  this  case,  more 
especially  if  the  grandchildren  be  included  in  the  calculation, 
the  odds  against  mere  coincidence  become  something  prodi- 
gious, almost  beyond  enumeration. 

In  some  respects  the  evidence  of  inheritance  is  more 
striking  when  we  consider  the  reappearance  of  trifling  pecu- 
liarities. Dr.  Hodgkin  formerly  told  me  of  an  English  family 
in  which,  for  many  generations,  some  members  had  a  single 
lock  differently  coloured  from  the  rest  of  the  hair,  I  knew 
an  Irish  gentleman,  who,  on  the  right  side  of  his  head,  had  a 
small  white  lock  in  the  midst  of  his  dark  hair :  he  assured 
me  that  his  grandmother  had  a  similar  lock  on  the  same  side, 
and  his  mother  on  the  opposite  side.  But  it  is  superfluous  to 
give  instances ;  every  shade  of  expression,  which  may  often 
be  seen  alike  in  parents  and  children,  tells  the  same  story. 
On  what  a  curious  combination  of  corporeal  structure,  mental 
character,  and  training,  handwriting  depends !  yet  every  one 
must  have  noted  the  occasional  close  similarity  of  the  hand 
30 


450  INHERITANCE.  Chap.  XII 

writing  in  father  and  son,  althougli  tlie  father  had  not  taught 
his  son.  A  great  collector  of  autographs  assured  me  that  in  his 
collection  there  were  several  signatures  of  father  and  son  hardly 
distinguishable  except  by  their  dates.  Hofacker,  in  Germany, 
remarks  on  the  inheritance  of  handwriting ;  and  it  has  even 
been  asserted  that  English  boys  when  taught  to  write  in 
France  naturally  cling  to  their  English  manner  of  writing ; 
but  for  so  extraordinary  a  statement  more  evidence  is  requi- 
site.^ Gait,  gestures,  voice,  and  general  bearing  are  all 
inherited,  as  the  illustrious  Hunter  and  Sir  A.  Carlisle  have 
insisted.^  My  father  communicated  to  me  some  striking 
instances,  in  one  of  which  a  man  died  during  the  early  infancy 
of  his  son,  and  my  father,  who  did  not  see  this  son  until 
grown  up  and  out  of  health,  declared  that  it  seemed  to  him 
as  if  his  old  friend  had  risen  from  the  grave,  with  all  his 
highly  peculiar  habits  and  manners.  Peculiar  manners  pass 
into  tricks,  and  several  instances  could  be  given  of  their 
inheritance ;  as  in  the  case,  often  quoted,  of  the  father  who 
generally  slept  on  his  back,  with  his  right  leg  crossed  over 
the  left,  and  whose  daughter,  whilst  an  infant  in  the  cradle, 
followed  exactly  the  same  habit,  though  an  attempt  was 
made  to  cure  her.^°  I  will  give  one  instance  which  has 
fallen  under  my  own  observation,  and  which  is  curious  from 
being  a  trick  associated  with  a  peculiar  state  of  mind,  namely, 
pleasureable  emotion.  A  boy  had  the  singular  habit,  when 
pleased,  of  rapidly  moving  his  fingers  parallel  to  each  other, 
and,  when  much  excited,  of  raising  both  hands,  with  the 
fingers  still  moving,  to  the  sides  of  his  face  on  a  level  with 
the  eyes ;  when  this  boy  was  almost  an  old  man,  he  could  still 
hardly  resist  this  trick  when  much  pleased,  but  from  its 
absurdity  concealed  it.  He  had  eight  children.  Of  these,  a 
girl,  when  pleased,  at  the  age  of  four  and  a  half  years,  moved 
her  fingers  in  exactly  the  same  way,  and  what  is  still  odder, 
when  much  excited,  she   raised  both   her  hands,  with   her 

8  Hofacker, '  Ueber  die  Eigenschaf-       Carlisle,    '  Phil.  Transact.,'   1814,  p. 
<eii,'  &c.,  1828,  s.  34.     With  respect       94. 

to    France,     Report    by    Pariset    in  ^°  Girou  de  Buzareignues,  '  De   la 

'Comptes  Rendus,'  1847,  p.  592.  Generation,'  p.  282.     I  have  given  an 

9  Hunter,   as    quoted  in  Harlan's  analogous  case    in   my  book  on  '  The 
*  Med.  Researches,'   p.   530.     Sir  A.  Expression  of  the  Emotions.* 


Chap.  XII.  INHEEITANCE.  451 

fingers  still  moving,  to  the  sides  of  lier  face,  in  exactly  the 
same  manner  as  her  father  had  done,  and  sometimes  even 
still  continued  to  do  so  when  alone.  I  never  heard  of  any  one^ 
excepting  this  one  man  and  his  little  daughter,  v^^ho  had  this 
strange  habit ;  and  certainly  imitation  was  in  this  instance 
out  of  the  question. 

Some  writers  have  doubted  whether  those  complex  mental 
attributes,  on  which  genius  and  talent  depend,  are  inherited, 
even  when  both  parents  are  thus  endowed.  But  he  who  will 
study  Mr.  Galton's  able  work  on  '  Hereditary  Genius '  will  have 
his  doubts  allayed. 

Unfortunately  it  matters  not,  as  far  as  inheritance  is  con- 
cerned, how  injurious  a  quality  or  structure  may  be  if  com- 
patible with  life.  No  one  can  read  the  many  treatises  ^^  on 
hereditary  disease  and  doubt  this.  The  ancients  were  strongly 
of  this  opinion,  or,  as  Ranchin  expresses  it,  Omnes  Grceci,  Arabes, 
et  Latini  in  eo  consentiunt.  A  long  catalogue  could  be  given  of 
all  sorts  of  inherited  malformations  and  of  predisposition  to 
various  diseases.  With  gout,  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  cases 
observed  in  hospital  practice  are,  according  to  Dr.  Garrod 
inherited,  and  a  greater  percentage  in  private  practice.  Every 
one  knows  how  often  insanity  runs  in  families,  and  some  of 
the  cases  given  by  Mr.  Sedgwick  are  awful, — as  of  a  surgeon, 
whose  brother,  father,  and  four  paternal  uncles  were  all 
insane,  the  latter  dying  by  suicide ;  of  a  Jew,  whose  father, 
mother,  and  six  brothers  and  sisters  were  all  mad ;  and  in 
some  other  cases  several  members  of  the  same  family,  during 
three  or  four  successive  generations,  have  committed  suicide. 
Striking  instances  have  been  recorded  of  epilepsy,  consump- 

^'  The  works  which  I  have  read  sophical  Treatise  on  Hereditary  Pe- 
and  found  most  useful  are  Dr.  Prosper  culiarities,'  2nd  edit,,  1815.  Essay- 
Lucas's  great  work,  'Traite  de  on  'Hereditary  Diseases,'  by  Dr.  J. 
I'Heredite  Naturelle,'  1847  ;  Mr.  W.  Steinan,  1843.' ^^  Paget,  in  '  Jiedical 
Sedgwick,  in  '  British  and  Foreign  Times,'  1857,  p.  192,  on  the  Inheri- 
Jledico-Chirurg.  Review,'  April  and  tance  of  Cancer;  Dr.  Gould,  in 
July,  1861,  and  April  and  July,  1863  :  '  Proc.  of  American  Acad,  of  Sciences,' 
Dr.  Garrod  on  Gout  is  quoted  in  these  Nov.  8,  1853,  gives  a  curious  case  of 
articles.  Sir  Henry  Holland,  '  Medical  hereditary  bleeding  in  four  genera- 
Notes  and  Reflections,'  3rd  edit.  1855.  tions.  Harlan,  '  Medical  Researches, 
Piorry,  '  De  I'Heredite  dans  le.--  p.  593. 
Maladies,'   1840.     Adams,  'A  Philo- 


452  INHEKITANCE.  Chap.  XU 

tion,  asthma,  stone  in  the  bladder,  cancer,  profuse  bleeding 
from  the  slightest  injuries,  of  the  mother  not  giving  milk,  and 
of  bad  parturition  being  inherited.  In  this  latter  respect  I 
may  mention  an  odd  case  given  by  a  good  observer,^^  in 
which  the  fault  lay  in  the  offspring,  and  not  in  the  mother : 
in  a  part  of  Yorkshire  the  farmers  continued  to  select  cattle 
with  large  hind-quarters,  until  they  made  a  strain  called 
"  Dutch-buttocked,"  and  "  the  monstrous  size  of  the  buttocks 
of  the  calf  was  frequently  fatal  to  the  cow,  and  numbers  of 
cows  were  annually  lost  in  calving." 

Instead  of  giving  numerous  details  on  various  inherited  malform- 
ations and  diseases,  I  will  confine  myself  to  one  organ,  that  which  is 
the  most  complex,  delicate,  and  probably  best-known  in  the  human 
frame,  namely,  the  eye,  with  its  accessory  parts.^^  To  begin  with  the 
latter  :  I  have  received  an  account  of  a  family  in  which  one  parent 
and  the  children  are  affected  by  drooping  eyelids,  in  so  peculiar  a 
manner,  that  they  cannot  see  without  throwing  their  heads  back- 
wards. Mr.  Wade,  of  Wakefield,  has  given  me  an  analogous  case  of 
a  man  who  had  not  his  eyelids  thus  affected  at  birth,  nor  owed 
their  state,  as  far  as  was  known,  to  inheritance,  but  they  began  to 
droop  whilst  he  was  an  infant  after  suffering  from  fits,  and  he  has 
transmitted  the  affection  to  two  out  of  his  three  children,  as  was 
evident  in  the  photographs  of  the  whole  family  sent  to  me  together 
with  this  account.  Sir  A.  Carlisle "  specifies  a  pendulous  fold  to 
the  eyelids,  as  inherited.  "  In  a  family,''  says  Sir  H.  HoUand,^^ 
"  where  the  father  had  a  singular  elongation  of  the  upper  eyelid, 
seven  or  eight  children  were  born  with  the  same  deformity ;  two  or 
three  other  children  having  it  not."  Many  persons,  as  I  hear  from 
Sir  J.  Paget,  have  two  or  three  hairs  in  their  eyebrows  much  longer 
than  the  others ;  and  even  so  trifling  a  peculiarity  as  this  certainly 
runs  in  families. 

With  respect  to  the  eye  itself,  the  highest  authority  in  England, 
Mr.  Bowman,  has  been  so  kind  as  to  give  me  the  following  remarks 
on  certain  inherited  imjjerfections.  First,  hypermetropia,  or 
morbidly  long  sight :  in  this  affection,  the  organ,  instead  of  being 
spherical,  is  too  flat  from  front  to  back,  and  is  often  altogether  too 
small,  so  that  the  retina  is  brought  too  forward  for  the  focus  of  the 
humours ;  consequently  a  convex  glass  is  required  for  clear  vision 


^2  Marsnall,  quoted  by  Youatt  in  others   have   been   communicated   to 

bis  work  on  Cattle,  p.  284.  me. 

**  Almost  any  other  organ  might  ^*  '  Philosoph.  Transact.,'  1814,  p. 

have    been   selected.       For    instance,  94. 

Mr.    J.    Tomes,    '  System    of    Dental  *^  '  Medical  Notes  and  Reflections, 

Surgery,'    2nd    edit.,    1873,   p.    114,  3rd  edit.,  p.  33. 
gives  many  instances  with  teeth,  and 


Chap.  XII.  INHERITANCE.  453 

of  near  objects,  and  frequently  even  of  distant  ones.  This  state 
occurs  congenitally,  or  at  a  very  early  age,  often  in  several  children 
of  the  same  family,  where  one  of  the  parents  has  presented  it.^^ 
Secondly,  myopia,  or  short-sight,  in  which  the  eye  is  egg-shaped  and 
too  long  from  front  to  back  ;  the  retina  in  this  case  lies  behind  the 
focus,  and  is  therefore  fitted  to  see  distinctly  only  very  near  objects. 
This  condition  is  not  commonly  congenital,  but  comes  on  in  youth, 
the  liability  to  it  being  well  known  to  be  transmissible  from  parent 
to  child.  The  change  from  the  spherical  to  theovoidal  shape  seems 
the  immediate  consequence  of  something  like  inflammation  of  the 
coats,  under  which  they  yield,  and  there  is  ground  for  believing  that 
it  may  often  originate  in  causes  acting  on  the  individual  affected/^ 
and  may  thenceforward  become  transmissible.  When  both  parents 
are  myopic  Mr.  Bowman  has  observed  the  hereditary  tendency  in 
this  direction  to  be  heightened,  and  some  of  the  children  to  be 
myopic  at  an  earlier  age  or  in  a  higher  degree  than  their  parents. 
Thirdly,  squinting  is  a  familiar  example  of  hereditary  transmission : 
it  is  frequently  a  result  of  such  optical  defects  as  have  been  above 
mentioned;  but  the  more  primary  and  uncomplicated  forms  of  it 
are  also  sometimes  in  a  marked  degree  transmitted  in  a  family. 
Fourthly,  Cataract,  or  opacity  of  the  crystalline  lens,  is  commonly 
observed  in  persons  whose  parents  have  been  similarly  affected,  and 
often  at  an  earlier  age  in  the  children  than  in  the  parents.  Occasion- 
ally more  than  one  child  in  a  family  is  thus  afflicted,  one  of  w^hose 
parents  or  other  relations,  presents  the  senile  form  of  the  complaint. 
When  cataract  affects  several  members  of  a  family  in  the  same 
generation,  it  is  often  seen  to  commence  at  about  the  same  age  in 
each  :  e.g.,  in  one  family  several  infants  or  young  persons  may  suffer 
from  it;  in  another,  several  persons  of  middle  age.  Mr.  Bowman 
also  informs  me  that  he  has  occasionally  seen,  in  several  members  of 
the  same  family,  various  defects  in  either  the  right  or  left  eye ;  and 
Mr.  White  Cooper  has  often  seen  peculiarities  of  vision  confined  to 
one  eye  reappearing  in  the  same  eye  in  the  offspring.^^ 

The  following  cases  are  taken  from  an  able  paper  by  Mr.  W. 
Sedgwick,  and  from  Dr.  Prosper  Lucas.^^  Amaurosis,  either  con- 
genital or  coming  on  late  in  life,  and  causing  total  blindness,  is  often 
inherited;  it  has  been  observed  in  three  successive  generations. 
Congenital  absence   of  the  iris  has  likewise  been  transmitted  for 


^°  This  affection,   as   I    hear    from  sight  is  due  to  the  habit   of  viewing 

Mr.  Bowman,  has  been  ably  described  objects  from    a   short  distance,    c'est 

and   spoken  of  as  hereditary  by  Dr.  le  travail  assidu,  de  pres. 
Donders  of  Utrecht,  whose  work  was  **  Quoted  by  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer, 

published  in  English  by  the  Sydenham  *  Principles  of  Biology,'  vol.  i.  p.  244. 
Society  in  1864.  i^  <  British    and    Foreign    Medico- 

*^  M.  Giraud-Teulon    has  recently  Chirurg.    Review,'   April,    1861,    pp. 

collected  abundant  statistical  evidence,  482-6;    *  L'Hered.  Nat.,'  torn.   i.  pp 

'  Revue  des  Cours  Scientifiques,'  Sept.,  391—408. 
1870,    p.    625,   showing    that    short 


454  INHERITANCE.  Chap.  XII 

three  generations,  a  cleft-iris  for  four  generations,  being  limited  in 
this  latter  case  to  the  males  of  the  family.  Opacity  of  the  cornea 
and  congenital  smallness  of  the  eyes  have  been  inherited.  Portal 
records  a  curious  case,  in  which  a  father  and  two  sons  were  rendered 
blind,  whenever  the  head  was  bent  downwards,  apparently  owing  to 
the  crystalline  lens,  with  its  capsule,  slipping  through  an  unusually 
large  pupil  into  the  anterior  chamber  of  the  eye.  Day-blindness,  or  im- 
perfect vision  under  a  bright  light,  is  inherited,  as  is  night-blindness^ 
or  an  incapacity  to  see  except  under  a  strong  light :  a  case  has  been 
recorded,  by  M.  Cunier,  of  this  latter  defect  having  affected  eighty- 
five  members  of  the  same  family  during  six  generations.  The 
singular  incapacity  of  distinguishing  colours,  which  has  been  called 
Daltonism,  is  notoriously  hereditary,  and  has  been  traced  through 
five  generations,  in  which  it  was  confined  to  the  female  sex. 

With  respect  to  the  colour  of  the  iris :  deficiency  of  colouring 
matter  is  well  known  to  be  hereditary  in  albinoes.  The  iris  of  one 
eye  being  of  different  colour  from  that  of  the  other,  and  the  iris 
being  spotted,  are  cases  which  have  been  inherited.  Mr.  Sedgwick 
gives,  in  addition,  on  the  authority  of  Dr.  Osborne,^°  the  following 
curious  instance  of  strong  inheritance  :  a  family  of  sixteen  sons  and 
five  daughters  all  had  eyes  "  resembling  in  miniature  the  markings 
on  the  back  of  a  tortoiseshell  cat."  The  mother  of  this  large  family 
had  three  sisters  and  a  brother  all  similarly  marked,  and  they 
derived  this  peculiarity  from  their  mother,  who  belonged  to  a 
family  notorious  for  transmitting  it  to  their  posterity. 

Finally,  Dr.  Lucas  emphatically  remarks  that  there  is  not  one 
single  faculty  of  the  eye  which  is  not  subject  to  anomalies ;  and  not 
one  which  is  not  subjected  to  the  principle  of  inheritance.  Mr. 
Bowman  agrees  with  the  general  truth  of  this  proposition  ;  which  of 
course  does  not  imply  that  all  malformations  are  necessarily 
inherited ;  this  would  not  even  follow  if  both  parents  were  affected 
by  an  anomaly  which  in  most  cases  was  transmissible. 

Even  if  no  single  fact  had  been  knovrn  with  respect  to  the 
inheritance  of  disease  and  malformations  by  man,  the  evidence 
■would  have  been  ample  in  the  case  of  the  horse.  And  this 
might  have  been  expected,  as  horses  breed  much  quicker  than 
man,  are  matched  with  care,  and  are  highly  valued.  I  have 
consulted  many  works,  and  the  unanimity  of  the  belief  by 
veterinaries  of  all  nations  in  the  transmission  of  various 
morbid  tendencies  is  surprising.  Authors  who  have  had  wide 
experience  give  in  detail  many  singular  cases,  and  assert  that 
contracted  feet,  with  the  numerous  contingent  evils,  of  ring- 
bones, curbs,  sj)lints,  spavin,  founder  and  weakness  of  the  front 

^"^  Dr.  Osborne,  Pres.  of  Royal  this  case  in  the  '  Dublin  Medical 
College  of  Phys.  in  Ireland,  published       Journal,'  for  1835. 


Chap.  XII.  INHERITANCE.  455 

legs,  roaring  or  broken  and  thick  wind,  melanosis,  specific 
ophthalmia,  and  blindness  (the  great  French  veterinary  Huzard 
going  so  far  as  to  sa}'-  that  a  blind  race  could  soon  be  formed), 
crib-biting,  jibbing  and  ill-temper,  are  all  plainly  hereditary. 
Youatt  sums  up  by  saying  "  there  is  scarcely  a  malady  to 
which  the  horse  is  subject  which  is  not  hereditary ;"  and  M. 
Bernard  adds  that  the  doctrine  "  that  there  is  scarcely  a 
disease  which  does  not  run  in  the  stock,  is  gaining  new 
advocates  every  day."  ^^  So  it  is  in  regard  to  cattle,  with 
consumption,  good  and  bad  teeth,  fine  skin,  &c.  &c.  But 
enough,  and  more  than  enough,  has  been  said  on  disease. 
Andrew  Knight,  from  his  own  experience,  asserts  that  disease 
is  hereditary  with  plants ;  and  this  assertion  is  endorsed  by 
Lindley.^^ 

Seeing  how  hereditary  evil  qualities  are,  it  is  fortunate 
that  good  health,  vigour,  and  longevity  are  equally  inherited. 
It  was  formerly  a  well-known  practice,  when  annuities  were 
purchased  to  be  received  during  the  life- time  of  a  nominee,  to 
search  out  a  person  belonging  to  a  family  of  which  many 
members  had  lived  to  extreme  old  age.  As  to  the  inheritance 
of  vigour  and  endurance,  the  English  race-horse  offers  an  ex- 
cellent instance.  Eclipse  begot  334,  and  King  Herod  497 
winners.  A  "  cock- tail  "  is  a  horse  not  purely  bred,  but  with 
only  one-eighth,  or  one-sixteenth  impure  blood  in  his  veins, 
yet  very  few  instances  have  ever  occurred  of  such  horses 
having  won  a  great  race.  The,y  are  sometimes  as  fleet  for 
short   distances   as  thoroughbreds,  but   as  Mr.  Eobson,  the 

2*  These    various    statements    are       483 :  Youatt  in   vol.  vi.  pp.  66    348, 
taken  from  the  following  works  and       412 ;    M.   Bernard,   vol.   xi.   p.    539  • 
' ""     ""         '  Dr.  Samcsreuther,  on  Cattle,  in  a^oI. 

xii,  p.  181;  Percivall,  in  vol.  xiii.  p. 
47.  With  respect  to  blindness  in 
horses,  see  also  a  whole  row  of 
authorities  in  Dr.  P.  Lucas's  great 
work,  tom.  i.  p.  399.  Mr.  Baker  iu 
'The  Veterinary,'  vol.  xiii.  p.  721, 
gives  a  strong  case  of  hereditary 
im^perfect  vision  and  of  jibbing. 

"  Knight  on  'The  Culture  of  the 
Apple  and  Pear,'  p.  34.  Lindley's 
'  Horticulture,'  p.  180. 


papers  : — Youatt  on  '  The  Horse,'  pp 
35,  220.  Lawrence,  '  The  Horse,'  p 
30.  Karkeek,  in  an  excellent  paper 
in  '  Card.  Chronicle,'  1853,  p.  92 
Mr.  Burke,  in  '  Journal  of  K.  Agricul 
Soc.  of  England,'  vol.  v.  p.  511 
'  Encyclop.  of  Rural  Sports,  p.  279 
Girou  de  Buzareignues,  '  Philosoph 
Phys.,'  p.  215.  See  following  papers 
in  '  The  Veterinary  ;'  Roberts,  in  a^oI 
ii.  p.  144 ;  M.  Marrimpoey,  a'oI.  ii.  p 
387 ;  Mr.  Karkeek,  vol.  iv.  p.  5 
Youatt  on  Goitre  in   Dogs,  vol.  v.  p 


456  INHERITANCE.  Chap.  XII 

great  trainer,  asserts,  they  are  deficient  in  wind,  and  cannot 
keep  up  the  pace.  Mr.  Lawrence  also  remarks,  "  perhaps  no 
instance  has  ever  occurred  of  a  three-part-bred  horse  saving 
his  '  distance '  in  running  two  miles  with  thoroughbred  racers." 
It  has  been  stated  by  Cecil,  that  when  unknown  horses,  whose 
parents  were  not  celebrated,  have  unexpectedly  won  great 
races,  as  in  the  .  case  of  Priam,  they  can  always  be  proved  to 
be  descended,  on  both  sides,  through  many  generations,  from 
first  rate  ancestors.  On  the  Continent,  Baron  Cameronn 
challenges,  in  a  German  veterinary  periodical,  the  opponents 
of  the  English  race-horse  to  name  one  good  horse  on  the 
Continent,  which  has  not  some  English  race-blood  in  his 
veins.^^ 

With  respect  to  the  transmission  of  the  many  slight,  but 
infinitely  diversified  characters,  by  which  the  domestic  races 
of  animals  and  plants  are  distinguished,  nothing  need  be  said ; 
for  the  very  existence  of  persistent  races  proclaims  the  j)ower 
of  inheritance. 

A  few  special  cases,  however,  deserve  some  consideration. 
It  might  have  been  anticipated,  that  deviations  from  the  law 
of  symmetry  would  not  have  been  inherited.  But  Anderson^* 
states  that  a  rabbit  produced  in  a  litter  a  young  animal 
having  only  one  ear;  and  from  this  animal  a  breed  was 
formed  which  steadily  produced  one-eared  rabbits.  He  also 
mentions  a  bitch  with  a  single  leg  deficient,  and  she  produced 
several  puppies  with  the  same  deficiency.  From  Hofacker's 
account,^^  it  appears  that  a  one-horned  stag  was  seen  in  1781 
in  a  forest  in  Germany,  in  1788  two,  and  afterwards,  from 
year  to  year,  many  were  observed  with  only  one  horn  on  the 
right  side  of  the  head.  A  cow  lost  a  horn  by  suppuration,^^ 
and  she  produced  three  calves  which  had  on  the  same  side  of 
the  head,  instead  of  a   horn,  a  small  bony  lump   attached 

23  These  statements  are  taken  from  Baron    Cameronn,    quoted    in    '  The 

the  following  works  in  order : — Youatt  Veterinary,'  vol.  x.  \).  500. 
on  'The  Horse,'  p.   48;  Mr.  Darvill,  ^^  'Recreations  in  Agriculture  and 

in  *The  Veterinary,'  vol.  viii.  p.  50.  Nat.  Hist.,'  vol.  i.  p.  68. 
With    respect    to    Robson,    see   '  The  ^^  '  Ueber   die  Eigenschaften,'   &c., 

V^eterinary,'     vol.     iii.  p.    580;    Mr.  1828,  s.  107. 

Lawrence  on  '  The  Horse,'  1829,  p.  9;  "  Bronn's  '  Geschichte  der  Na^nr. 

•The   Stud    Farm,'   by  Cecil,    18c  1  Band  ii.  s.  132. 


Chap.  Xli.  INHEKITANCE.  457 

merely  to  the  skin ;  but  we  here  encroach  on  the  sul.ject  of 
inherited  mutilations.  A  man  who  is  left-handed,  and  a 
shell  in  which  the  spire  turns  in  the  wrong  directions,  are 
departures  from  the  normal  asymmetrical  condition,  and  they 
are  well-known  to  be  inherited. 

Polydactyli^m. — Supernumerary  fingers  and  toes 'are  eminently 
liable,  as  Yarious  authors  have  insisted,  to  be  inherited.  Poly- 
dactylism  graduates^'  by  multifarious  steps  from  a  niere  cutaneous 
appendage,  not  including  any  bone,  to  a  double  hand.  But  an  ad- 
ditional digit,  supported  on  a  metacarpal  bone,  and  furnished  with 
all  the  proper  muscles,  nerves,  and  vessels,  is  sometimes  so  perfect, 
that  it  escapes  detection,  unless  the  fingers  are  actually  counted. 
Occasionally  there  are  several  supernumerary  digits;  but  usually 
only  one,  making  the  total  number  six.  This  oue  may  be  attached 
to  the  inner  ov  outer  margin  of  the  hand,  representing  either  a 
thumb  or  little  finger,  the  latter  being  the  more  frequent.  Gene- 
rally, through  the  law  of  correlation,  both  hands  and  both  feet  are 
similarly  affected.  Dr.  Burt  Wilder  has  tabulated  ^^  a  large  number 
of  cases,  and  finds  that  supernumerary  digits  are  more  common  on 
the  hands  than  on  the  feet,  and  that  men  are  affected  oftener  than 
women.  Both  these  facts  can  be  explained  on  two  principles  which 
seem  generally  to,  hold  good;  firstly,  that  of  two  parts,  the  more 
specialised  one  is  the  more  variable,  and  the  arm  is  more  highly 
specialised  than  the  leg;  and  secondly  that  male  animals  are  more 
variable  than  females. 

The  presence  of  a  greater  number  of  digits  than  five  is  a  great 
anomaly,  for  this  number  is  not  normally  exceeded  by  any  existing 
mammal,  bird,  or  reptile.  Nevertheless,  supernumerary  digits  are 
strongly  inherited ;  they  have  been  transmitted  through  five  genera- 
tions ;  and  in  some  cases,  after  disappearing  for  one,  two,  or  even 
three  generations,  have  reappeared  through  reversion.  These  facts 
are  rendered,  as  Professor  Huxley  has  observed,  more  remarkable 
from  its  being  known  in  most  cases  that  the  affected  person  has  not 
married  one  similarly  affected.  In  such  cases  the  child  of  the  fifth 
generation  would  have  only  l-32nd  part  of  the  blood  of  his  first 
sedigitated  ancestor.  Other  cases  are  rendered  remarkable  by  the 
affection  gathering  force,  as  Dr.  Struthers  has  shown,  in  each 
generation,  though  in  each  the  affected  person  married  one  not 
affected ;  moreover,  such  additional  digits  are  often  amputated  soon 
after  birth,  and  can  seldom  have   Decn  strengthened  by  use.     Dr. 


^^   V'rolik  has  discussed  this  point  p.  684. 
at    full  length  in  a  work   published  2*  '  Massachusetts  Medical  Society,* 

in   Dutch,   from  which   Sir  J.  Paget  vol.    ii.    No.    3 ;    and    *  Proc.    Boston 

has  kindly  translated  for  me  passages.  Soc.  of  Nat.  Hist.,'  vol.  xiv..  1871,  p. 

See,  also,  Isidore  GeofFroy  St.  Hilaire'h  164. 
'Hist,  des  Anomalies,'   1832    torn,  i 


458  INHERITANCE.  Chap.  XIL 

Strutliers  gives' the  following  instance:  in  the  first  generation  an 
additional  digit  appeared  on  one  hand;  in  the  second,  on  both 
hands ;  in  the  third,  three  brothers  had  both  hands,  and  one  of  the 
brothers  a  foot  affected ;  and  in  the  fourth  generation  all  four  limbs 
were  affected.  Yet  we  must  not  over-estimate  the  force  of  inherit- 
ance. Dr.  Struthers  asserts  that  cases  of  non-inheritance  and  of  the 
first  appearance  of  additional  digits  in  unaffected  families  are  much 
more  frequent  than  cases  of  inheritance.  Many  other  deviations  of 
structure,  of  a  nature  almost  as  anomalous  as  supernumerary  digits, 
such  as  deficient  phalanges,^  thickened  joints,  crooked  fingers,  &c., 
are,  in  like  manner,  strongly  inherited,  and  are  equally  subject  to 
intermission,  together  with  reversion,  though  in  such  cases  there 
is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  both  parents  had  been  similarly 
affected.^" 

Additional  digits  have  been  observed  in  negroes  as  well  as  in 
other  races  of  man,  and  in  several  of  the  lower  animals,  and  have 
been  inherited.  Six  toes  have  been  described  on  the  hind  feet  of  the 
newt  (Salamandra  cristata),  and  are  said  to  have  occurred  with  the 
frog.  It  deserves  notice,  that  the  six-toed  newt,  though  adult, 
preserved  some  of  its  larval  characters;  for  part  of  the  hyoidal 
apparatus,  which  is  properly  absorbed  during  the  act  of  metamor- 
phosis, was  retained.  It  is  also  remarkable  that  in  the  case  of  man 
various  structures  in  an  embryonic  or  arrested  state  of  development, 
such  as  a  cleft-palate,  bifid  uterus,  &c.,  are  often  accompanied  by 
polydactylism.^^  Six  toes  on  the  hinder  feet  are  known  to  have 
been  inherited  for  three  generations  of  cats.  In  several  breeds  of 
the  fowl  the  hinder  toe  is  double,  and  is  generally  transmitted 
truly,  as  is  well  shown  when  Dorkings  are  crossed  with  common 


29  Dr    J.  W.  Ogle  gives  a  case  of  April,  1863,  p.  462.     On  the  inheri- 

the  inheritance  of  deficient  phalanges  tance  of  other  anomalies  in  the  ex- 

during    four    generations.       He    adds  tremities,  see  Dr.  H.  Dobell,  in  vol. 

references  to  various  recent  papers  on  xlvi.of 'Medico-Chirurg.Transactions,' 

inheritance,     '  Brit,    and     For.  Med.-  1863 ;  also  Mr.  Sedgwick,  in  op.  cit., 

Chirurg.  Review,'  Ap.  1872.  April,  1863,  p.  460.     With  respect  to 

3<»  For  these  several  statenients,  see  additional  digits  in  the  negro,  see 
Dr.  Struthers,  '  Edinburgh  New  Phil.  Priohard,  'Physical  History  of  Man- 
Journal,'  July,  1863,  especially  on  kind.'  Dr.  DiefFenbach  ('Jour.  Royal 
intermissions  in  the  line  of  descent.  Geograph.  Soc.,'  184-1,  p.  208)  says 
Prof.  Huxley,'  Lectures  on  our  Know-  this  anomaly  is  not  uncommon  with 
ledge  of  Organic  Nature,'  1863,  p.  the  Polynesians  of  the  Chatham 
97.  With  respect  to  inheritance,  s^0  Islands;  and  I  have  heard  of  several 
Dr.  Prosper  Lucas,  '  L'Heredite  Nat.,'  cases  with  Hindus  and  Arabs, 
torn.  i.  p.  325.  Isid.  Geofltroy, '  Anom.,'  "  Meckel  and  Isid  G.  St.  Hilaire 
torn.  L  p.  701.  Sir  A.  Carlisle,  in  insist  on  this  fact.  See,  also  M.  A. 
'  PhiL  Transact.,'  1814,  p.  94.  A.  Roujou,  'Sur  quelques  Analogies  du 
Walker,  on  '  Intermarriage,'  1838,  Type  Humain,'  p.  61  ;  published,  i 
p.  140,  gives  a  case  of  five  genera-  believe,  in  the  '  Journal  of  the  Anthro 
tions  ;  as  does  Mr.  Sedgwick,  in  '  Brit.  polog.  Soc.  of  Paris,'  Jan.  1872. 
and  Foreign  Medico-Chirura:.  Review,' 


Chap.  XII.  INHERITANCE.  459 

four-toed  breed s.^^  With  animals  whicli  have  properly  less  than 
five  digits,  the  number  is  sometimes  increased  to  five,  especially  on 
the  front  legs,  though  rarely  carried  beyond  that  number;  but  thi3 
is  due  to  the  development  of  a  digit  already  existing  in  a  more  or 
less  rudimentary  state.  Thus,  the  dog  has  properly  four  toes  behind, 
but  in  the  larger  breeds  a  fifth  toe  is  commonly,  though  not  per- 
fectly, developed.  Horses,  which  properly  have  one  toe  alone  fully 
developed  with  rudiments  of  the  others,  have  been  described  with 
each  foot  bearing  two  or  three  small  separate  hoofs :  analogous  facts 
have  been  noticed  with  cows,  sheep,  goats,  and  pigs.^ 

There  is  a  famous  case  described  by  Mr.  White  of  a  child,  three 
years  old,  with  a  thumb  double  from  the  first  joint.  He  removed 
the  lesser  thumb,  which  was  furnished  with  a  nail;  but  to  his 
astonishment  it  grew  again  and  reproduced  a  nail.  The  child  was 
then  taken  to  an  eminent  London  surgeon,  and  the  newly-grown 
thumb  was  removed  by  its  socket-joint,  but  again  it  grew  and  re- 
produced a  nail.  Dr.  Struthers  mentions  a  case  of  the  partial 
re-growth  of  an  additional  thumb,  amputated  when  a  child  was 
three  months  old ;  and  the  late  Dr.  Falconer  communicated  to  me 
an  analogous  instance.  In  the  last  edition  of  this  work  I  also  gave 
a  case  of  the  regrowth  of  a  supernumerary  little-finger  after  ampu- 
tation; but  having  been  informed  by  Dr.  Bachmaier  that  several 
eminent  surgeons  expressed,  at  a  meeting  of  the  Anthropological 
Society  of  Munich,  great  doubt  about  my  statements,  I  have  made 
more  particular  inquiries.  The  full  information  thus  gained,  to- 
gether with  a  tracing  of  the  hand  in  its  present  state,  has  been  laid 
before  Sir  J.  Paget,  and  he  has  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  de- 
gree of  regrowth  in  this  case  is  not  greater  than  sometimes  occurs 
with  normal  bones,  especially  with  the  humerus,  when  amputated 
at  an  early  age.  He  further  does  not  feel  fully  satisfied  about  the 
facts  recorded  by  Mr.  White.  This  being  so,  it  is  necessary  for  me 
to  withdraw  the  view  which  I  formerly  advanced,  with  much  hesi- 
tation, chiefly  on  the  ground  of  the  supposed  regrowth  of  additional 
digits,  namely,  that  their  occasional  development  in  man  is  a  case 
of  reversion  to  a  lowly  organised  progenitor  provided  with  more 
than  five,  digits. 

I  may  here  allude  to  a  class  of  facts  closely  allied  to,  but 
somewhat  different  from,  ordinary  cases  of  inheritance.  Sir 
H.  Holland^'^  states  that  brothers  and  sisters  of  the   same 

*2  '  The  Poultry  Chronicle,'  1854,  well  developed  toes  on  each  hmd  limb, 

p.  559.  besides   the  ordinary  rudiments;  and 

^'  The  statements  in  this  paragraph  her  calf  by  an  ordinary  bull  had  extra 

are   taken   from  Isidore  GeofFroy   St.  digits.    This  calf  also  bore  two  calves 

Hilaire,  '  Hist,  des  Anomalies,'  tom.  i.  having  extra  digits. 
pp.    688-693.      Mr.    Goodman  gives,  34  <  Medical  Notes  and  Keflections,' 

'Phil.  Soc.   of  Cambridge,' Nov.  25,  1839,  pp.  24,  ,34.     See,  also.   Dr.  P 

1872,  the  case  of  a  cow  with   throe  Lucas,  '  L'Hered.  Nat.,'  tom,  ii.  p.  33L. 


460  INHERITANCE.  Chap.  XIL 

family  are  frequently  affected,  often  at  about  tlie  same  age, 
by  the  same  peculiar  disease,  not  known  to  have  previously 
occurred  in  the  family.  He  specifies  the  occurrence  of  diabetes 
in  three  brothers  under  ten  years  old ;  he  also  remarks  that 
children  of  the  same  family  often  exhibit,  in  common  infantile 
diseases,  the  same  peculiar  symptoms.  My  father  mentioned 
to  me  the  case  of  four  brothers  who  died  between  the  ages  of 
sixty  and  seventy,  in  the  same  highly  peculiar  comatose  state. 
An  instance  has  alread}^  been  given  of  supernumerary  digits 
appearing  in  four  children  out  of  six  in  a  previously  unaffected 
family.  Dr.  Devay  states  ^^  that  two  brothers  married  two 
sisters,  their  first-cousins,  none  of  the  four  nor  any  relation 
being  an  albino ;  but  the  seven  children  produced  from  this 
double  marriage  were  all  perfect  albinoes.  Some  of  these 
cases,  as  Mr.  Sedgwick^''  has  shown,  are  probably  the  result 
of  reversion  to  a  remote  ancestor,  of  whom  no  record  had  been 
preserved ;  and  all  these  cases  are  so  far  directly  connected 
with  inheritance  that  no  doubt  the  children  inherited  a 
similar  constitution  from  their  parents,  and,  from  being 
exposed  to  nearly  similar  conditions  of  life,  it  is  not  surpris- 
ing that  they  should  be  affected  in  the  same  manner  and  at 
the  same  period  of  life. 

Most  of  the  facts  hitherto  given  have  served  to  illustrate 
the  force  of  inheritance,  but  we  must  now  consider  cases 
grouped  as  well  as  the  subject  allows  into  classes,  showing 
how  feeble,  capricious,  or  deficient  the  power  of  inheritance 
sometimes  is.  When  a  new  peculiarity  first  appears,  we  can 
never  predict  whether  it  will  be  inherited.  If  both  parents 
from  their  birth  present  the  same  peculiarity,  the  probability 
is  strong  that  it  will  be  transmitted  to  at  least  some  of  their 
offspring.  We  have  seen  that  variegation  is  transmitted 
much  more  feohly  by  seed,  taken  from  a  branch  which  had 
become  variegated  thiough  bud- variation,  than  from  plants 
which  were  variegated  as  seedlings.  With  most  plants  the 
power  of  transmission  notoriously  depends  on   some  innate 

35 '  Du  Danger  des  Mariages  Con-  Chirurg.  Eeview,'  July,  1863,  pp. 
sanguins,'  2nd  edit.,  1862,  p.  103.  183,  189. 

36  '  British    and  Foreign   Medico- 


Chap.  XII.  INHERITANCE.  461 

capacity  in  the  individual :  thus  Vihnorin  ^^  raised  from  a 
peculiarly  coloured  balsam  some  seedlings,  which  all  resembled 
their  parent;  but  of  these  seedlings  some  failed  to  transmit 
t]ie  new  character,  whilst  others  transmitted  it  to  all  their 
descendants  during  several  successive  generations.  So  again 
with  a  variety  of  the  rose,  two  plants  alone  out  of  six  Avere 
found  by  Yilmorin  to  be  capable  of  transmitting  the  desired 
character;  numerous  analogous  cases  could  be  given. 

The  weeping  or  pendulous  growth  of  trees  is  strongly  inherited 
in  some  cases,  and,  without  any  assignable  reason,  feebly  in  other 
cases.  I  have  selected  this  character  as  an  instance  of  capricious 
inheritance,  because  it  is  certainly  not  proper  to  the  parent- species, 
and  because,  both  sexes  being  borne  on  the  same  tree,  both  tend  to 
transmit  the  same  character.  Even  supposing  that  there  may  have 
been  in  some  instances  crossing  with  adjoining  trees  of  the  same 
species,  it  is  not  probable  that  all  the  seedlings  would  have  been 
thus  affected.  At  Moccas  Court  there  is  a  famous  weeping  oak ; 
many  of  its  branches  "  are  30  feet  long,  and  no  thicker  in  any  part 
of  this  length  than  a  common  rope  :"  this  tree  transmits  its  weejDing 
character,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  to  all  its  seedlings ;  some  of 
the  young  oaks  being  so  flexible  that  they  have  to  be  supported  by 
props ;  others  not  showing  the  weeping  tendency  till  aboirt  twenty 
years  old.^^  Mr.  Elvers  fertilized,  as  he  informs  me,  the  flowers  of 
a  new  Belgian  weeping  thorn  (Cratceyus  oxyaca^dha)  with  pollen 
from  a  crimson  not- weeping  variety,  and  three  young  trees,  "  now 
six  or  seven  years  old,  show  a  decided  tendency  to  be  pendulous, 
but  as  yet  are  not  so  much  so  as  the  mother-plant."  According  to 
Mr.  MacNab,^^  seedlings  from  a  magnificent  weeping  birch  (Betula 
alba),  in  the  Botanic  Garden  at  Edinburgh,  grew  for  the  first  ten  or 
fifteen  years  upright,  but  then  all  became  weepers  like  their  parent. 
A  peach  with  pendulous  branches,  like  those  of  the  weeping  willow, 
has  been  found  capable  of  propagation  by  seed.*"  Lastly,  a  weeping 
or  rather  a  prostrate  yew  (  Taxus  haccaia)  was  found  in  a  hedge  in 
Shropshire ;  it  was  a  male,  but  one  branch  bore  female  flowers,  and 
produced  berries ;  these,  being  sown,  produced  seventeen  trees  all 
of  which  had  exactly  the  same  peculiar  habit  with  the  parent- 
tree.''^ 

These  facts,  it  might  have  been  thought,  would  have  been  sufficient 


'^  Verlot,  *  La  Product,  des  Varie-  similar   statement  in  '  Proc.  Nat.    of 

tes,'  1865,  p.  32.  Philadelphia,'  1872,  p.  235. 

2*  Loudon's  '  Gard.  Mag.,'  vol.  xii.,  *^  Kev.  W.  A.   Leighton,  '  Flora  of 

1836,  p.  368.  Shropshire,'    p.    497 ;     and    Charles- 

^^  Verlot,  'La  Product,  des  Varie-  worth's  'Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist,,'  vol.  i., 

t^s,'  1865,  p.  94.  1837,  p.  30.    I  possess  prostrate  trees 

■•"  Bronn's  '  Geschichte  der  Natur,'  produced  from  these  seeds. 
b.  li.  s.  121,      Mr.  Meehan  makes  a 


462  INHEEITANCE.  Chap.  XIL 

to  render  it  probable  that  a  pendulous  habit  would  in  all  cases  be 
strictly  inherited.  But  let  us  look  to  the  other  side.  Mr.  MacNab^^ 
sowed  seeds  of  the  weeping  beech  (Fagus  sylvatica),  but  succeeded 
in  raising  only  common  beeches.  Mr.  Kivers,  at  my  request,  raised 
a  number  of  seedlings  from  three  distinct  varieties  of  weeping  elm ; 
and  at  least  one  of  the  parent-trees  was  so  situated  that  it  could  not 
have  been  crossed  by  any  other  elm ;  but  none  of  the  young  trees, 
now  about  a  foot  or  two  in  height,  show  the  least  signs  of  weeping. 
Mr.  Elvers  formerly  sowed  above  twenty  thousand  seeds  of  the 
weeping  ash  (Fraxinus  excelsior),  and  not  a  single  seedling  was  in 
the  least  degree  pendulous :  in  Germany,  M.  Borchmeyer  raised  a 
thousand  seedlings,  with  the  same  result.  Nevertheless,  Mr.  Ander- 
son, of  the  Chelsea  Botanic  Garden,  by  sowing  seed  from  a  weeping 
ash,  which  was  found  before  the  year  1780,  in  Cambridgeshire, 
raised  several  pendulous  trees.*^  Professor  Henslow  also  informs 
me  that  some  seedlings  from  a  female  weeping  ash  in  the  Botanic 
Garden  at  Cambridge  were  at  first  a  little  pendulous,  but  afterwards 
became  quite  upright :  it  is  probable  that  this  latter  tree,  which 
transmits  to  a  certain  extent  its  pendulous  habit,  was  derived  by  a 
bud  from  the  same  original  Cambridgeshire  stock;  whilst  other 
weeping  ashes  may  have  had  a  distinct  origin.  But  the  crowning 
case,  communicated  to  me  by  Mr.  Elvers,  which  shows  how 
capricious  is  the  inheritance  of  a  pendulous  habit,  is  that  a  variety 
of  another  species  of  ash  (F.  lentiscifolia),  now  about  twenty  years 
old,  which  was  formerly  pendulous,  "  has  long  lost  this  habit,  every 
"  shoot  being  remarkably  erect ;  but  seedlings  formerly  raised  from 
"  it  were  perfectly  prostrate,  the  stems  not  rising  more  than  two 
^'  inches  above  the  ground."  Thus  the  weeping  variety  of  the  common 
ash,  which  has  been  extensively  propagated  by  buds  during  a  long 
period,  did  not  with  Mr.  Elvers,  transmit  its  character  to  one  seed- 
ling out  of  above  twenty  thousand  ;  whereas  the  weeping  variety  of 
a  second  species  of  ash,  which  could  not,  whilst  grown  in  the  same 
garden,  retain  its  own  weeping  character,  transmitted  to  its  character 
the  pendulous  habit  in  excess ! 

Many  analogous  facts  could  be  given,  showing  how  apparently 
capricious  is  the  principle  of  inheritance.  All  the  seedlings  from  a 
variety  of  the  Barberry  {B.  vulgaris)  with  red  leaves  inherited  the 
same  character ;  only  about  one-third  of  the  seedlings  of  the  copper 
Beech  {Fagus  sylvatica)  had  purple  leaves.  Not  one  out  of  a  hundred 
seedlingsof  a  variety  of  the  Cerasuspadm,  with  yellow  fruit,  bore  yellow 
fruit :  one-twelfth  of  the  seedlings  of  the  variety  of  Cornus  mascula^ 
with  yellow  fruit,  came  true  :  ^^  and  lastly,  all  the  trees  raised  by  my 
father  from  a  yellow-berried  holly  {Ilex  aquifolium),  found  wild, 


*'  Verlot,  op.  cit.,  p.  93.  1833,  p.  597. 

**  For  these  several  statements,  see  *■*  These  statements  are  taken  from 

Loudon's    '  Gard.    Magazine,     vol.    x.  Alph.  De  Caudolle,  '  Bot.  Geograph., 

1834,   pp.    408,    180 ;    and   vol.    ix.,  p.  1083. 


Chai  .  XII  INHERITANCE.  463 

produced  yellow  berries.  Vilmorin  ^^  observed  in  a  bed  of  Saponaria 
calabrica  an  extremely  dwarf  variety,  and  raised  from  it  a  large 
number  of  seedlings ;  some  of  these  partially  resembled  their  parent, 
and  he  selected  their  seed;  but  the  grandchildren  were  not  in  the 
least  dwarfed :  on  the  other  hand,  he  observed  a  stunted  and  bushy 
variety  of  Tagetes  signata  growing  in  the  midst  of  the  common 
varieties  by  which  it  was  probably  crossed ;  for  most  of  the  seedlings 
raised  from  this  plant  were  intermediate  in  character,  only  two 
perfectly  resembling  their  parent ;  but  seed  saved  from  these  two 
plants  reproduced  the  new  variety  so  truly,  that  hardly  any  selection 
has  since  been  necessary. 

Flowers  transmit  their  colour  truly,  or  most  capriciously.  Many 
annuals  come  true :  thus  I  purchased  German  seeds  of  thirty -four 
named  sub- varieties  of  one  race  of  ten- week  stocks  (Matthiola 
annua),  and  raised  a  hundred  and  forty  plants,  all  of  which,  with 
the  exception  of  a  single  plant,  came  true.  In  saying  this,  however, 
it  must  be  understood  that  I  could  distinguish  only  twenty  kinds 
out  of  the  thirty-four  named  sub-varieties ;  nor  did  the  colour  of 
the  flower  always  correspond  with  the  name  affixed  to  the  packet ; 
but  I  say  that  they  came  true,  because  in  each  of  the  thirty-six 
short  rows  every  plant  was  absolutely  alike,  with  the  one  single 
exception.  Again,  I  procured  packets  of  German  seed  of  twenty- 
five  named  varieties  of  common  and  quilled  asters,  and  raised  a 
hundred  and  twenty-four  plants ;  of  these,  all  except  ten  were  true 
in  the  above  limited  sense ;  and  I  considered  even  a  wrong  shade  of 
colour  as  false. 

It  is  a  singular  circumstance  that  white  varieties  generally 
transmit  their  colour  much  more  truly  than  any  other  variety. 
This  fact  probably  stands  in  close  relation  with  one  observed  by 
Verlot,*^  namely,  that  flowers  which  are  normally  white  rarely  vary 
into  any  other  colour.  I  have  found  that  the  white  varieties  of 
Delphinium  consolida  and  of  the  Stock  are  the  truest.  It  is,  indeed, 
sufficient  to  look  through  a  nurseryman's  seed-list,  to  see  the  large 
number  of  white  varieties  which  can  be  propagated  by  seed.  The 
several  coloured  varieties  of  the  sweet-pea  (Lathyrus  odoratus)  are 
very  true ;  but  I  hear  from  Mr.  Masters,  of  Canterbury,  who  has 
particularly  attended  to  this  plant,  that  the  while  variety  is  the 
truest.  The  hyacinth,  when  propagated  by  seed,  is  extremely, 
inconstant  in  colour,  but  "  white  hyacinths  almost  always  give  by 
seed  white-flowered  plants;"*^  and  Mr.  Masters  informs  me 
that  the  yellow  varieties  also  reproduce  their  colour,  but  of  different 
shades.  On  the  other  hand,  pink  and  blue  varieties,  the  latter  being 
the  natural  colour,  are  not  nearly  so  true  :  hence,  as  Mr.  Masters  has 
remarked  to  me,  "  we  see  that  a  garden  variety  may  acquire  a  more 
permanent  habit  than  a  natural  species ;  "  but  it  should  have  been 
added,  that  this  occurs  under  cultivation,  and  therefore  under 
changed  conditions. 

«  Verlot,  op.  cit.,  p.  38.  *'  Alph.    De  Candolle,  '  Geogiaph. 

«  Op.  cit.,  p.  5y.  Bot.,'  p.  1082. 


464  INHEEITANCE.  Chap.  XII 

With  many  flowers,  especially  perennials,  nothing  can  be  more 
fluctuating  than  the  colour  of  the  seedlings,  as  is  notoriously  the 
case  Avith  verbenas,  carnations,  dahlias,  cinerarias,  and  others.^®  I 
sowed  seed  of  twelve  named  varieties  of  Snapdragon  (^/j^/rrAmMm 
majas),  and  utter  confusion  was  the  result.  In  most  cases  the 
extremely  fluctuating  colour  of  seedling  plants  is  probably  in  chief 
part  due  to  crosses  between  differently-coloured  varieties  during 
previous  generations.  It  is  almost  certain  that  this  is  the  case  with 
Hie  polyanthus  and  coloured  primrose  {Primula  veris  and  vulgaris), 
from  their  reciprocally  dimorphic  structure ;  "^^  and  these  are  plants 
w^hich  florists  speak  of  as  never  coming  true  by  seed :  but  if  care  be 
taken  to  prevent  crossing,  neither  species  is  by  any  means  very 
inconstant  in  colour;  thus  I  raised  twenty-three  plants  from  a 
purple  primrose,  fertilised  by  Mr.  J.  Scott  with  its  pollen,  and 
eighteen  came  up  purple  of  different  shades,  and  only  five  reverted 
to  the  ordinary  yellow  colour:  again,  I  raised  twenty  plants  from  a 
bright-red  cowslip,  similarly  treated  by  Mr.  Scott,  and  every  one 
perfectly  resembled  its  parent  in  colour,  as  likewise  did,  with  the 
exception  of  a  single  plant,  72  grandchildren.  Even  with  the 
most  variable  flowers,  it  is  probable  that  each  delicate  shade  of 
colour  might  be  permanently  fixed  so  as  to  be  transmitted  by  seed, 
by  cultivation  in  the  same  soil,  by  long-continued  selection,  and 
especially  by  the  prevention  of  crosses.  I  infer  this  from  certain 
annual  larkspurs  (Delphinium  consolida  and  ajacis),  of  which  common 
seedlings  present  a  greater  diversity  of  colour  than  any  other  plant 
known  to  me;  yet  on  procuring  seed  of  five  named  German  varieties 
of  D.  consolida,  only  nine  plants  out  of  ninety-four  were  false  ;  and 
the  seedlings  of  six  varieties  of  D.  ajacis  were  true  in  the  same 
manner  and  degree  as  with  the  stocks  above  described.  A  dis- 
tinguished botanist  maintains  that  the  annual  species  of  Delphinium 
are  always  self-fertilised ;  therefore  I  may  mention  that  thirty-twc 
flowers  on  a  branch  of  D.  consolida,  enclosed  in  a  net,  yielded  twenty- 
seven  capsules,  with  an  average  of  17"2  seed  in  each ;  whilst  five 
flowers,  under  the  same  net,  which  were  artificially  fertilised,  in  the 
same  manner  as  must  be  effected  by  bees  during  their  incessant 
visits,  yielded  five  capsules  with  an  average  of  35*2  fine  seed  ;  and 
this  shows  that  the  agency  of  insects  is  necessary  for  the  full 
fertility  of  this  plant.  Analogous  facts  could  be  given  with  respect 
to  the  crossing  of  many  other  flowers,  such  as  carnations,  &c.,  of 
which  the  varieties  fluctuate  much  in  colour. 

As  with  flowers,  so  with  our  domesticated  animals, no  character  is 
more  variable  than  colour,  and  probably  in  no  animal  more  so  than 
with  the  horse.  Yet,  with  a  little  care  in  breeding,  it  appears  that 
races  of  any  colour  might  soon  be  formed.  Hofacker  gives  the  result 
of  matching  two  hundred  and  sixteen  mares  of  four  different  colours 


*^  See   *  Cottage    Gardener,'  April  *"  Darwin,    in    '  Journal   of    Proc 

10,   1860,  p.  18,  and  Sept.  10,  1861,       Linn.  Soc.  Bot.'  1862,  p.  94. 
p.  456  •  '  Card.  Chron.,'  1845,  p.  102. 


Chap.  XII.  INHERITANCE.  465 

with  like-coloured  stallions,  withont  regard  to  the  colour  of  their 
ancestors ;  and  of  the  two  hundred  and  sixteen  colts  born,  eleven 
alone  failed  to  inherit  the  colour  of  their  parents :  Au.tenrieth  and 
Ammon  assert  that,  after  two  generations,  colts  of  a  uniform  colour 
are  produced  with  certainty.  ^° 

In  a  few  rare  cases  peculiarities  fail  to  be  inherited,  appa- 
rently from  the  force  of  inheritance  being  too  strong.  I 
have  been  assured  by  breeders  of  the  canary-bird  that  to  get 
a  good  jonquil-coloured  bird  it  does  not  answer  to  pair  two 
jonquils,  as  the  colour  then  comes  out  too  strong,  or  is  even 
bro^^-n  ;  but  this  statement  is  disputed  by  other  breeders.  So 
again,  if  two  crested  canaries  are  paired,  the  young  birds 
rarely  inherit  this  character  :  ^^  for  in  crested  birds  a  narrow 
space  of  bare  skin  is  left  on  the  back  of  the  head,  where  the 
feathers  are  up-turned  to  form  the  crest,  and,  when  both 
parents  are  thus  characterised,  the  bareness  becomes  exces- 
sive, and  the  crest  itself  fails  to  be  developed.  Mr.  Hewitt, 
speaking  of  Laced  Sebright  Bantams,  says  ^^  that,  "  why  this 
should  be  so  I  know  not,  but  I  am  confident  that  those  that 
are  best  laced  frequently  produce  offspring  very  far  from 
perfect  in  their  markings,  whilst  those  exhibited  by  myself, 
which  have  so  often  proved  successful,  were  bred  from  the 
union  of  heavily-laced  birds  with  those  that  were  scarcely 
sufficiently  laced." 

It  is  a  singular  fact  that,  although  several  deaf-mutes  often 
occur  in  the  same  family,  and  though  their  cousins  and  other 
relations  are  often  in  the  same  condition,  yet  their  parents  are 
rarely  deaf-mutes.  To  give  a  single  instance  :  not  one  scholar 
out  of  148,  who  were  at  the  same  time  in  the  London  Institu- 
tion, was  the  child  of  parents  similarly  affected.  So  again, 
when  a  male  or  female  deaf-mute  marries  a  sound  person, 
their  children  are  most  rarely  affected :  in  Ireland,  out  of  203 
children  thus  produced  one  alone  was  mute.  Even  when 
both  parents  have  been  deaf-mutes,  as  in  the  case  of  forty-one 
marriages  in  the  United  States  and  of  six  in  Ireland,  only 

^°  Hofacker,     '  Ueber     die    Eigen-  that  he  believes  that  these  statements 

schaften,'  &c.,  s.  10.  are  correct. 

"  Bechstein, 'Naturgesch.Deutsch-  ^2  c^he  Poultry   Book,'  by   W.  B 

lands,'  b.  iv.  s.  462.      Mr.  Brent,  a  Tegetmeier,  1866,  p.  245. 
great  breeder  of  canaries,  informs  me 

31 


466  INHERITANCE.  CHAr.  XH 

two  deaf  and  dumb  cliildreii  were  produced.  Mr.  Sedgwick,^^ 
in  commenting  on  this  remarkable  and  fortunate  failure  in 
the  power  of  transmission  in  the  direct  line,  remarks  that  '.t 
juay  possibly  be  owing  to  "  excess  having  reversed  the  action 
of  some  natural  law  in  development."  But  it  is  safer  in  the 
present  state  of  our  knowledge  to  look  at  the  whole  case  as 
simply  unintelligible. 

Although  many  congenital  monstrosities  are  inherited,  of 
which  examples  have  already  been  given,  and  to  which  may 
be  added  the  lately  recorded  case  of  the  transmission  during 
a  century  of  hare-lip  with  a  cleft-palate  in  the  writer's  own 
family,^*  yet  other  malformations  are  rarely  or  never  inherited. 
Of  these  latter  cases,  many  are  probably  due  to  injuries  in 
the  womb  or  egg^  and  would  come  under  the  head  of  non- 
inherited  injuries  or  mutilations.  With  plants,  a  long  cata- 
logue of  inherited  monstrosities  of  the  most  serious  and 
diversified  nature  could  easily  be  given ;  and  with  plants, 
there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  monstrosities  are  caused 
by  direct  injuries  to  the  seed  or  embryo. 

With  respect  to  the  inheritance  of  structures  mutilated  by 
injuries  or  altered  by  disease,  it  was  until  lately  difficult  to 
come  to  any  definite  conclusion.  Some  mutilations  have  been 
practised  for  a  vast  number  of  generations  without  any  in- 
herited result.  Godron  remarks  ^^  that  different  races  of  man 
have  from  time  immemorial  knocked  out  their  upper  incisors, 
cut  oif  joints  of  their  fingers,  made  holes  of  immense  size 
•through  the  lobes  of  their  ears  or  through  their  nostrils, 
tatooed  themselves,  made  deep  gashes  in  various  parts  of  their 
bodies,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  these  mutila- 
tions   have   ever   been    inherited. ^^      Adhesions   due  to  in- 

^^  'British      and      Foreign    Med.-  ^^  Nevertheless  Mr.  Wetherell  states, 

Chirurg.    Review,'   July,    1861,    pf.  'Nature,'   Dec.    1870,    p.    168,    that 

200-204.      Mr.  Sedgwick    has  given  when  he  visited  fifteen  years  ago  the 

such  full  details  on  this  subject,  with  Sioux  Indians,  he  was  informed   "  by 

ample    references,   that  I  need  refer  a  physician,  who  has  passed   much  of 

to  no  other  authorities.  his  time  with  these  tribes,  that  som.e- 

^■*  Mr.  Sproule,  in  '  British  Medical  times    a   child  was  born   with    these 

Journal,'  April  18,  1863.               •  marks.      This  was  confirmed  by  the 

"  '  De  r£spec«,'  torn,  ii.,  1859,  p.  U.  S.  Government  Indian  Agent." 
299. 


Chap.  XII.  INHERITANCE.  467 

flammation  and  pits  from  tlie  small  -  pox  (and  formerly 
many  consecutive  generations  must  have  been  thus  pitted) 
are  not  inherited.  With  respect  to  Jews,  I  have  been  assured 
hj  three  medical  men  of  the  Jewish  faith  that  circumcision, 
which  has  been  practised  for  so  many  ages,  has  produced  no 
inherited  effect.  Blumenbach,  however,  asserts  ^^  that  Jews 
are  often  born  in  Germany  in  a  condition  rendering  circum- 
cision difficult,  so  that  a  name  is  given  them  signifying  "  bom 
circumcised ; "  and  Professor  Preyer  informs  me  that  this  is 
the  case  in  Bonn,  such  children  being  considered  the  special 
favourites  of  Jehovah.  I  have  also  heard  from  Dr.  A.  Newman, 
of  Guy's  Hospital,  of  the  grandson  of  a  circumcised  Jew,  the 
father  not  having  been  circumcised,  in  a  similar  condition.  But 
it  is  possible  that  all  these  cases  may  be  accidental  coincidences, 
for  Sir  J.  Paget  has  seen  five  sons  of  a  lady  and  one  son  of 
her  sister  with  adherent  prepuces ;  and  one  of  these  boys  was 
affected  in  a  manner  "  which  might  be  considered  like  that 
commonly  produced  by  circumcision;"  yet  there  was  no 
suspicion  of  Jewish  blood  in  the  family  of  these  two  sisters. 
Circumcision  is  practised  by  Mahomedans,  but  at  a  much 
later  age  than  by  Jews  ;  and  Dr.  Eiedel,  Assistant  Eesident 
in  North  Celebes,  writes  to  me  that  the  boys  there  go  naked 
until  from  six  to  ten  years  old ;  and  he  has  observed  that 
many  of  them,  though  not  all,  have  their  prepuces  much 
reduced  in  length,  and  this  he  attributes  to  the  inherited 
effects  of  the  operation.  In  the  vegetable  kingdom  oaks  and 
other  trees  have  borne  galls  from  primeval  times,  yet  they 
do  not  produce  inherited  excrescences ;  and  many  other  such 
facts  could  be  adduced. 

Notwithstanding  the  above  several  negative  cases,  we 
now  possess  conclusive  evidence  that  the  effects  of  operations 
are  sometimes  inherited.  Dr.  Brown-Sequard  ^^  gives  the 
following  summary  of  his  observations  on  guinea-pigs  ;  and 
this  summary'  is  so  important  that  I  will  quote  the  whole : — 


*"  'Philosoplu  Mag.'  vol.  iv.,  1799,  1875,  p.  7.     The  extracts  are  from 

0.  5.  this    last    paper.      It    appears    that 

58  <  Proc,   Royal    Soc.,'   vol.    x.    p.  Obersteiner,   '  Strieker's    Med.    Jahr- 

297.     '  Commtinication  to  the    Brit.  biicher,'  1875,  No.   2,  has  confirmea 

Assoc,'    1870.      'The   Lancet,'   Jan.  Browu-Sequard's  observati  irns 


468  INHERITANCE.  Chap.  XIL 

"  1st.  Appearance  of  epilepsy  in  animals  born  of  parents  haying 
been  rendered  epileptic  by  an  injury  to  the  spinal  cord. 

"  2nd.  Appearance  of  epilepsy  also  in  animals  born  of  parents 
having  been  rendered  epileptic  by  the  section  of  the  sciatic  nerve. 

"  3rd.  A  change  in  the  shape  of  the  ear  in  animals  born  of  parents 
in  which  such  a  change  was  the  effect  of  a  division  of  the  cervical 
Bympathetic  nerve. 

''  4th.  Partial  closure  of  the  eyelids  in  animals  born  of  parents  in 
which  that  state  of  the  eyelids  had  been  caused  either  by  the 
section  of  the  cervical  sympathetic  nerve  or  the  removal  of  tho 
superior  cervical  ganglion. 

"  5th.  Exophthalmia  in  animals  born  of  parents  in  which  an  injury 
to  the  restiform  body  had  produced  that  protrusion  of  the  eyeball. 
This  interesting  fact  I  have  witnessed  a  good  many  times,  and  I 
have  seen  the  transmission  of  the  morbid  state  of  the  eye  continue 
through  four  generations.  In  these  animals,  modified  by  hcredityj 
the  two  eyes  generally  XJi'otruded,  although  in  the  parents  usually 
only  one  showed  exophthalmia,  the  lesion  having  been  made  in  most 
cases  only  on  one  of  the  corpora  restiformia. 

"  6th.  Hoematoma  and  dry  gangrene  of  the  ears  in  animals  born  of 
parents  in  which  these  ear-alterations  had  been  caused  by  an  injury 
to  the  restiform  body  near  the  nib  of  the  calamus. 

"  7th.  Absence  of  two  toes  out  of  the  three  of  the  hind  leg,  and 
sometimes  of  the  three,  in  animals  whose  parents  had  eaten  up  their 
hind- leg  toes  which  had  become  ansesthetic  from  a  section  of  the 
sciatic  nerve  alone,  or  of  that  nerve  and  also  of  the  crural.  Some- 
times, instead  of  complete  absence  of  the  toes,  only  a  part  of  one  or 
two  or  three  was  missing  in  the  young,  although  in  the  parent  not 
only  the  toes  but  the  whole  foot  was  absent  (partly  eaten  off,  partly 
destroyed  by  inflammation,  ulceration,  or  gangrene). 

"  8th.  Appearance  of  various  morbid  states  of  the  skin  and  hair  of 
the  neck  and  face  in  animals  born  of  parents  having  had  similar 
alterations  in  the  same  parts,  as  effects  of  an  injury  to  the  sciatic 
uerve." 

It  should  be  especially  observed  that  Brown-Sequard  has 
bred  during  thirty  years  many  thousand  guinea-pigs  from 
animals  which  had  not  been  operated  upon,  and  not  one  of 
these  manifested  the  epileptic  tendency.  Nor  has  he  ever 
seen  a  guinea-pig  born  without  toes,  which  was  not  the 
offspring  of  parents  which  had  gnawed  off  their  own  toes 
owing  to  the  sciatic  nerve  having  been  divided.  Of  this 
latter  fact  thirteen  instances  were  carefnlly  recorded,  and  a 
greater  number  were  seen;  yet  Brown-Sequard  speaks  of 
snob  cases  as  one  of  the  rarer  forms  of  inheritance.  It  is  a 
still  more  interesting  fact — 


Chap.  XII.  INHERIT AXCE.  469 

"That  the  sciatic  nerve  in  the  congenitally  toeless  animal  has 
inherited  the  power  of  passing  through  all  the  different  morbid  states 
which  have  occurred  in  one  of  its  parents  from  the  time  of  the  division 
till  after  its  reunion  with  the  peripheric  end.  It  is  not  therefore 
simply  the  power  of  performing  an  action  which  is  inherited,  but 
the  power  of  performing  a  whole  series  of  actions,  in  a  certain  order." 

In  most  of  the  cases  of  inheritance  recorded  by  Brown-Se- 
quard  only  one  of  the  two  parents  had  been  operated  upon 
and  was  affected.  He  concludes  by  expressing  his  belief  that 
"  what  is  transmitted  is  the  morbid  state  of  the  nervous 
system,"  due  to  the  operation  performed  on  the  parents. 

With  the  lower  animals  Dr.  Proper  Lucas  has  collected  a 
long  list  of  inherited  injuries.  A  few  instances  will  suffice. 
A  cow  lost  a  horn  from  an  accident  with  consequent  suppur- 
ation, and  she  produced  three  calves  which  were  hornless  on 
the  same  side  of  the  head.  With  the  horse,  there  seems 
hardly  a  doubt  that  exostoses  on  the  legs,  caused  by  too 
much  travelling  on  hard  roads,  are  inherited.  Blumen- 
bacli  records  the  case  of  a  man  who  had  his  little  finger  on 
the  right  hand  almost  cut  off,  and  which  in  consequence 
grew  crooked,  and  his  sons  had  the  same  finger  on  the  same 
hand  similarly  crooked.  A  soldier,  fifteen  years  before  his 
marriage,  lost  his  left  eye  from  purulent  ophthalmia,  and  his 
two  sons  were  microphthalmic  on  the  same  side.^^  In  all 
cases  in  which  a  parent  has  had  an  organ  injured  on  one 
side,  and  two  or  more  of  the  offspring  are  born  with  the 
same  organ  affected  on  the  same  side,  the  chances  against 
mere  coincidence  are  almost  infinitely  great.  Even  when 
only  a  single  child  is  born  having  exactly  the  same  part  of 
the  body  affected  as  that  of  his  injured  parent,  the  chances 
against  coincidence  are  great ;  and  Professor  Eolleston  has 
given  me  two  such  cases  which  h&MQ  fallen  under  his  own 
observation, — namely  of  two  men,  one  of  whom  had  his  knee 
and  the  other  his  cheek  severel}^  cut,  and  both  had  children 

^^  This  last  case  is  quoted  by  Mr.  ix.  p.    323.     Some   curious  cases  are 

Sedgwick    in   '  British    and    Foreign  given  by  Mr.  Baker  in  the  '  Veterinary,' 

Medico-Chirurg.  Review,'  April,  1861,  vol.  xiii.   p.  723.       Another    curioiis 

p.  484.     For  Blumenbach,  see  above-  case    is    given    in    the    'Annales    de£ 

cited  paper.     See,  also,  Dr.  P.  Lucas,  Scienc.  Nat.,'  1st  series,  torn.  xi.  p. 

'Traite  de  I'Hered.  Nat.,'  torn.  il.  p.  324. 
492.    Also,  'Transact.  Linn.  Soc.,' vol. 


470  INHEKITANCE.  Chap.  XII 

bom  with  exactly  the  same  spot  marked  or  scarred.  Many 
instances  have  been  recorded  of  cats,  dogs,  and  horses,  which 
have  had  their  tails,  legs,  &c.,  amputated  or  injured,  produc- 
ing offspring  with  the  same  joarts  ill- formed ;  but  as  it  is  not 
very  rare  for  similar  malformations  to  appear  spontaneously, 
all  such  caises  may  be  due  to  coincidence.  It  is,  however,  an 
argument  on  the  other  side  that  "  under  the  old  excise  laws 
*'  the  shepherd-dog  was  only  exempt  from  tax  when  without 
"  a  tail,  and  for  this  reason  it  was  alwa3"s  removed  ;  "  ^°  and 
there  still  exist  breeds  of  the  shepherd-dog  which  are  always 
born  destitute  of  a  tail.  Finally,  it  must  be  admitted,  more 
especially  since  the  publication  of  Brown-Sequard's  observa- 
tions, that  the  effects  of  injuries,  especially  Avhen  followed  by 
disease,  or  perhaps  exclusively  when  thus  followed,  are 
occasionally  inherited.^^ 

Causes  of  Non-inlieritance. 

A  large  number  of  cases  of  non-inheritance  are  intelligible 
on  the  principle,  that  a  strong  tendency  to  inheritance  does 
exist,  but  that  it  is  overborne  by  hostile  or  unfavourable 
conditions  of  life.  No  one  would  expect  that  our  improved 
pigs,  if  forced  during  several  generations  to  travel  about  and 
root  in  the  ground  for  their  own  subsistence,  would  transmit, 
as  truly  as  they  now  do  their  short  muzzles  and  legs,  and 
their  tendency  to  fatten.  Dray-horses  assuredly  would  not 
long  transmit  their  great  size  and  massive  limbs,  if  compelled 
to  live  on  a  cold,  damp  mountainous  region ;  we  have  indeed 
evidence  of  such  deterioration  in  the  horses  which  have  run 
wild  on  the  Falkland  Islands.  European  dogs  in  India  often 
fail  to  transmit  their  true  character.  Our  sheep  in  tropical 
countries  lose  their  wool  in  a  few  generations.  There  seems 
also  to  be  a  close  relation  between  certain  peculiar  pastures 
and  the  inheritance  of  an  enlarged  tail  in  fat-tailed  sheep, 

^°  'The  Dop-,' by  Stonehenge,  1867,  reduced  on   the  same   part   of  these 

p.  118.  feathers,  it  seems  extremely  probable, 

^*  The    Mot-mot    habitually    bites  as  Mr.  Salvin  remarks  (' Proc.Zoolog. 

the  barbs  off  the  middle  part  of  the  Soc'  1873,  p.  429),  that  this  is  due  to 

two  central  tail-feathers,  and  as  the  the  inherited  effects  of  long-continued 

barbs     are     congenitally    somewhat  mutilation. 


Chap.  XIL  NON-INHEKITANCE.  ,     471 

wliicb  form  one  of  the  most  ancient  breeds  in  the  world. 
With  plants,  we  have  seen  that  tropical  varieties  of  maize 
lose  their  proper  character  in  the  course  of  two  or  three 
generations,  when  cultivated  in  Europe ;  and  conversely  so 
it  is  with  European  varieties  cultivated  in  Brazil.  Our 
cabbages,  which  here  come  so  true  by  seed,  cannot  form  heads 
in  hot  countries.  According  to  Carriere,"^  the  purple-leafed 
beech  and  barberry  transmit  their  character  by  seed  far  less 
truly  in  certain  districts  than  in  others.  Under  changed 
circumstances,  periodical  habits  of  life  soon  fail  to  be  trans- 
mitted, as  the  period  of  maturity  in  summer  and  winter 
wheat,  barley,  and  vetches.  So  it  is  with  animals  :  for 
instance,  a  person,  whose  statement  I  can  trust,  procured  eggs 
of  Aylesbury  ducks  from  that  town,  where  they  are  kept  in 
houses  and  are  reared  as  early  as  possible  for  the  London 
market ;  the  ducks  bred  from  these  eggs  in  a  distant  part  of 
England,  hatched  their  first  brood  on  January  24th,  whilst 
common  ducks,  kept  in  the  same  yard  and  treated  in  the 
same  manner,  did  not  hatch  till  the  end  of  March ;  and  this 
shows  that  the  period  of  hatching  was  inherited.  But  the 
grandchildren  of  these  Aylesbury  ducks  completely  lost  their 
habit  of  early  incubation,  and  hatched  their  eggs  at  the 
same  time  with  the  common  ducks  of  the  same  place. 

Many  cases  of  non-inheritance  apparently  result  from  the 
conditions  of  life  continually  inducing  fresh  variability.  We 
have  seen  that  when  the  seeds  of  pears,  plums,  apples,  &c., 
are  sown,  the  seedlings  generally  inherit  some  degree  of 
family  likeness.  Mingled  with  these  seedlings,  a  few,  and 
sometimes  many,  worthless,  wild-looking  plants  commonly 
appear,  and  their  appearance  may  be  attributed  to  the  prin- 
ciple of  reversion.  But  scarcely  a  single  seedling  will  be 
found  perfectly  to  resemble  the  parent-form ;  and  this  may 
be  accounted  for  by  constantly  recurring  variability  induced 
by  the  conditions  of  life.  I  believe  in  this,  because  it  has 
been  observed  that  certain  fruit-trees  truly  propagate  their 
kind  whilst  growing  on  their  own  roots  ;  but  when  grafted  on 
other  stocks,  and  by  this  process  their  natural  state  is  mani- 
festly affected,  they  produce   seedlings  which  vary  greatly, 

^'  '  Production  et  Fixation  des  Varietes,'  18G5,  p.  72. 


472  INHERITANCE.  Chap.  XII. 

departing  from  tlie  parental  type  in  many  characters. ""^ 
Metzger,  as  stated  in  tlie^  ninth  chapter,  found  that  certain 
kinds  of  wheat  brought  from  Spain  and  cultivated  in 
Germany,  failed  during  many  years  to  reproduce  themselves 
truly ;  but  at  last,  when  accustomed  to  their  new  conditions, 
tliey  ceased  to  be  variable, — that  is,  they  became  amenable 
to  the  power  of  inheritance.  Nearly  all  the  plants  which 
cannot  be  propagated  with  any  approach  to  certainty  by  seed, 
are  kinds  which  have  been  long  propagated  by  buds,  cuttings, 
offsets,  tubers,  &c.,  and  have  in  consequence  been  frequently 
exposed  during  what  may  be  called  their  individual  lives  to 
widely  diversified  conditions  of  life.  Plants  thus  propagated 
become  so  variable,  that  they  are  subject,  as  we  have  seen  in 
the  last  chapter,  even  to  bud-variation.  Our  domesticated 
animals,  on  the  other  hand,  are  not  commonly  expossed  during 
the  life  of  the  individual  to  such  extremely  diversified  con- 
ditions, and  are  not  liable  to  such  extreme  variability ;  there- 
fore they  do  not  lose  the  power  of  transmitting  most  of  their 
characteristic  features.  In  the  foregoing  remarks  on  non- 
inheritance,  crossed  breeds  are  of  course  excluded,  as  their 
diversity  mainly  depends  on  the  unequal  development  of 
character  derived  from  either  parent  or  their  ancestors. 

Conclusion. 

It  has  been  shown  in  the  early  part  of  this  chapter  how  com- 
monly new  characters  of  the  most  diversified  nature,  whether 
normal  or  abnormal,  injurious  or  beneficial,  whether  affecting 
organs  of  the  highest  or  most  trifling  importance,  are  in- 
herited. It  is  often  sufficient  for  the  inheritance  of  some 
peculiar  character,  that  one  parent  alone  should  possess  it,  as 
in  most  cases  in  which  the  rarer  anomalies  have  been  trans- 
mitted. But  the  power  of  transmission  is  extremely  variable. 
In  a  number  of  individuals  descended  from  the  same  parents, 
and  treated  in  the  same  manner,  some  display  this  power  in 
a  perfect  manner,  and  in  some  it  is  quite  deficient ;  and  for 
this  difierence  no  reason  can  be  assigned.  The  effects  of 
injuries  or  mutilations  are  occasionally  inherited;    and  we 

^3  Downing,  '  Fruits  of  America,'  p.  5:  Sageret,  'Pom.  Phys.,'  pp.  43,  72. 


Chap.  XIL  INHERITANCE.  473 

shall  see  in  a  future  chapter  that  the  long- continued  use  and 
disuse  of  parts  produces  an  inherited  effect.  Even  those  cha- 
racters which  are  considered  the  most  fluctuating,  such  as 
colour,  are  with  rare  exceptions  transmitted  much  more 
forcibly  than  is  generally  supposed.  The  wonder,  indeed,  in 
all  cases  is  not  that  any  character  should  be  transmitted,  but 
that  the  power  of  inheritance  should  ever  fail.  The  checks  to 
inheritance,  as  far  as  we  know  them,  are,  firstly,  circumstances 
hostile  to  the  particular  character  in  question ;  secondly,  con- 
ditions of  life  incessantly  inducing  fresh  variability;  and 
lastly,  the  crossing  of  distinct  varieties  during  some  previous 
generation,  together  with  reversion  or  atavism — that  is,  the 
tendency  in  the  child  to  resemble  its  grand-parents  or  more 
remote  ancestors  instead  of  its  immediate  parents.  This  latter 
subject  will  be  discussed  in  the  following  chapter. 


END   OF    VOL.    I, 


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